Prepare your Server

Before we start we need to prepare the server. In this step we create the environment to manage the vaultwarden instance. Login to your server using your standard User (not root).

Basic requirements

Login to your server with SSH and authenticate with keys. Never use simple password authentication. You must create a private and a public SSH key-pair on your Host Machine and copy only the public SSH key to your Remote Server. Keep your private key safe on your Host machine. Then copy your public key to your Remote Server and configure your ssh-deamon on your Remote Server. Disable password authentication and root login in your configuration on your Remote Server. How all this works is very good explained on Linuxize.com.

You must ensure that SSL certificates for your server are installed. I use free LetsEncrypt certificates and certbot to install and renew my certificates on the system. Therefore pls. read on my Digitaldocblog in the Article SSL Certificates with Lets Encrypt and certbot on a Linux Server . Here you find a very detailed description of how you can do this .

You must ensure that docker and docker-compose is installed on your system. Therefore pls. read on my Digitaldocblog a very detailed description of how you can do this in the Article Containerize a nodejs app with nginx. You should read the following chapters:

• Prepare the System for secure Downloads from Docker
• Install Docker from Docker Resources
• Install standalone docker-compose from Docker Resources
  

Make sure that your server is running behind a firewall. In my case I have a virtual server and I am responsible for server security. Therefore I install and configure a firewall on my system.

Before you configure the firewall be sure that your ssh service is running and on which port your ssh service is running. This is important to know because you don’t want to lock yourself out. First you check if the ssh service is running with systemctl and then on which port ssh is running using netstat. If netstat is not installed on your system you can do this with apt.

#control ssh status
sudo systemctl status ssh

#check ssh port
sudo netstat -tulnp | grep ssh

#check if net-tools (include netstat) are installed
which netstat

#install net-tools only in case not installed
sudo apt install net-tools

I install ufw (uncomplicated firewall) on my server and configure it to provide only SSH and HTTPS to the outside world.

# check if ufw is installed
ufw version
which ufw

#install ufw if not installed
sudo apt install ufw

#open SSH and HTTPS
sudo ufw allow OpenSSH
sudo ufw allow 443
sudo ufw allow 80/tcp

#Default rules
sudo ufw default deny incoming
sudo ufw default allow outgoing

#Start the firewall
sudo ufw enable

#Check the firewall status
sudo ufw status verbose
Status: active
Logging: on (low)
Default: deny (incoming), allow (outgoing), deny (routed)
New profiles: skip

To                         Action      From
--                         ------      ----
22/tcp (OpenSSH)           ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
443                        ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
80/tcp                     ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
22/tcp (OpenSSH (v6))      ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)             
443 (v6)                   ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)             
80/tcp (v6)                ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)

Port 443 must run TCP and UDP

In the Docker environment, we will later configure Caddy as a reverse proxy for the vaultwarden service. Caddy requires both TCP and UDP on port 443. This is due to a modern protocol called HTTP/3 (QUIC).

Traditionally, the web (HTTP/1.1 and HTTP/2) ran exclusively over the TCP protocol. TCP is very reliable, but sometimes a bit slow when establishing a connection. Google and others subsequently developed QUIC, on which the new standard HTTP/3 is based. QUIC uses UDP instead of TCP.

HTTP/3 QUIC is significantly faster when establishing a connection (handshake). It handles packet loss better, which is especially important for mobile connections on smartphones, for example, when using the Bitwarden app.

Caddy is a very modern reverse proxy that has HTTP/3 enabled by default. The „normal“ HTTPS connection (HTTP/1.1 or HTTP/2) is established over TCP port 443. Caddy offers clients (Browsers or the Bitwarden app) the option to switch to HTTP/3 via UDP port 443.

With vaultwarden, users often access their vaults via smartphones using LTE or Wi-Fi connections. When UDP port 443 is open, the app uses HTTP/3. This results in a more stable connection and improved vault synchronization due to reduced latency.

Why must Port 80 be open

When you follow the instructions in the Article SSL Certificates with Lets Encrypt and certbot on a Linux Server then you are using certbot and install your LetsEncrypt certificates on your local server with the following certbot command :

sudo certbot certonly --standalone -d <yourDomain>

Here you use the method standalone. Whenever you renew your certificates certbot starts a temporary web server to prove ownership of your domain to LetsEncrypt.

When renewing your certificates certbot attempts to start a temporary web server on port 80. Therefore, port 80 must be open on your system via your firewall rules.

Important: If another web server (such as Nginx or Apache) is already running permanently on port 80, this step will fail unless the service is stopped. So, if a web server is running on port 80, this service must be permanently stopped.

After Certbot successfully starts the web server on port 80, the following happens:

• ACME Challenge: Certbot contacts the Let’s Encrypt servers. These provide Certbot with a random string (token).
• Deployment: Certbot creates a small file on the spot at the URL http://yourDomain/.well-known/acme-challenge/token
• Verification: The Let’s Encrypt servers now attempt to access this exact URL via the public internet. If they find the file (and the correct token), it proves that you own the server under this domain.
  

Once the verification is successful, the temporary standalone web server is immediately shut down and port 80 is opened. Certbot generates a new private key (if configured) and signs the new certificate. The new certificate files are stored in the directory /etc/letsencrypt/archive/ and the symbolic links in the directory /etc/letsencrypt/live/ are updated.

Create new user vaultwarden

You are logged in with your standarduser. From the home directory of the standarduser you create the user vaultwarden and create the hidden directory /home/vaultwarden/.ssh. Then copy the authorized_keys file from your .ssh directory into the new created .ssh directory of the new user vaultwarden and set the owner and permissions.

The new user vaultwarden should be in sudo group to perform commands under root using sudo. And the user vaultwarden should be in docker group to perform docker commands without using sudo.

#logged-in with standard user and create new user 
sudo adduser vaultwarden

#create hidden .ssh directory in new users home directory
sudo mkdir /home/vaultwarden/.ssh

#copy authorized_keys file to enable ssh key login for new user
cd /home/standarduser/.ssh
sudo cp authorized_keys /home/vaultwarden/.ssh

#set the owner vaultwarden and permissions
sudo chown -R vaultwarden:vaultwarden /home/vaultwarden/.ssh
sudo chmod 700 /home/vaultwarden/.ssh
sudo chmod 600 /home/vaultwarden/.ssh/authorized_keys

#check permissions
ls -al /home/vaultwarden
drwx-- vaultwarden vaultwarden 4096 May 11 14:20 .ssh

ls -l /home/vaultwarden/.ssh
-rw-- vaultwarden vaultwarden 400 May 11 14:20 authorized_keys

#add user vaultwarden to sudo- and docker group
sudo usermod -aG sudo vaultwarden
sudo usermod -aG docker vaultwarden

#check vaultwarden groups (3 groups: vaultwarden sudo docker)
sudo groups vaultwarden
vaultwarden : vaultwarden sudo docker

Create /opt/vaultwarden directory

Login with the new user vaultwarden. Stay logged in as vaultwarden for the next steps. Do not perform the next steps or the installation of the vaultwarden server with root or any other user.

After you are logged in with vaultwarden you create a new directory /opt/vaultwarden. This is the runtime directory of your vaultwarden application and the place from where the docker containers will be started.

sudo mkdir /opt/vaultwarden
sudo chmod -R 700 /opt/vaultwarden

ls -l /opt/vaultwarden
drwx--vaultwarden vaultwarden 4096 Mai 16 07:06 vaultwarden
 

Then change into /opt/vaultwarden. You create the /opt/vaultwarden/vw-data directory which is the host directory for the docker containers. One of these containers will be started under the container name vaultwarden. This container vaultwarden run with root privileges and write into this host directory /opt/vaultwarden/vw-data.

mkdir /opt/vaultwarden/vw-data

ls -l /opt/vaultwarden
drwxrwxr-x 6 vaultwarden vaultwarden 4096 Mai 15 15:54 vw-data
`

Create /opt/vaultwarden/certs and copy your SSL certificates

The container vaultwarden is the web application where you can log-in and manage your passwords. As we will se below the container will be started under the user vaultwarden in /opt/vaultwarden and run with root privileges behind a reverse proxy server. As reverse proxy I will use Caddy which is a powerful platform. Caddy manages the requests from the outside world and forward requests via an internal docker network to the vaultwarden server.

Caddy must accept only HTTPS connections and use the standard directory for certificates /opt/vaultwarden/certs. Therefore we create this directory.

I use Letsencrypt certificates which are managed automatically by certbot and stored in the directory /etc/letsencrypt on my host server. The keys are set up the following structure:

• In /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain> there are only symlinks that point
• to the real files in /etc/letsencrypt/archive/<domain>.
  

Copy the fullchain.pem and privkey.pem files from /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain> to /opt/vaultwarden/certs and set the permissions accordingly.

#create certs directory
mkdir /opt/vaultwarden/certs

#change into certs directory
cd /opt/vaultwarden/certs

#copy the files
cp /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain>/fullchain.pem fullchain.pem
cp /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain>/privkey.pem privkey.pem

#set owner and group vaultwarden
chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden fullchain.pem
chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden privkey.pem

#set access (read write only vaultwarden)
chmod 600 privkey.pem
chmod 600 fullchain.pem

note: The cp command will place the actual files (not the symlinks) into the directory /opt/vaultwarden/certs unless you specify a -P or -d option. So the cp command follows the symlinks and grab the actual files behind. This is important when the certificates have been renewed and new certificate files are stored behind the symlinks.

Run Vaultwarden and Caddy as docker containers

The following setup creates a secure, email-enabled Vaultwarden instance behind a Caddy reverse proxy with HTTPS and admin access, running entirely via Docker.

Create docker-compose.yml

This docker-compose.yml file sets up two services Vaultwarden and Caddy to host a self-hosted password manager with HTTPS support.

#docker-compose.yml

services:
  vaultwarden:
    image: vaultwarden/server:latest
    container_name: vaultwarden
    restart: always
    environment:
      DOMAIN: "<yourDomain>"
      SIGNUPS_ALLOWED: "false"
      SMTP_HOST: "<yourSmtpServer>"
      SMTP_FROM: "<yourEmail>"
      SMTP_FROM_NAME: "<yourName>"
      SMTP_USERNAME: "<yourEmail>"
      SMTP_PASSWORD: "<yourSmtpPasswd>"
      SMTP_SECURITY: "force_tls"
      SMTP_PORT: "465"
      ADMIN_TOKEN: '<yourAdminToken>'
    volumes:
      - ./vw-data:/data

  caddy:
    image: caddy:2
    container_name: caddy
    restart: always
    ports:
      - 443:443
      - 443:443/udp 
    volumes:
      - ./Caddyfile:/etc/caddy/Caddyfile:ro
      - ./caddy-config:/config
      - ./caddy-data:/data
      - ./certs:/certs:ro
    environment:
      DOMAIN: "<yourDomain>"
      LOG_FILE: "/data/access.log"

vaultwarden service:

Runs the Vaultwarden server (a lightweight Bitwarden-compatible backend).

• Disables user signups (SIGNUPS_ALLOWED: „false“).
• Configures SMTP settings for sending emails (e.g. for password resets).
• Sets a secure admin token (using Argon2 hash) to access the /admin interface.
• Persists Vaultwarden data to ./vw-data on the host.
  

Enable admin page access:

With the ADMIN_TOKEN set we enable login to the admin site via <yourDomain>/admin. First create a secure admin password. The <yourAdminToken> value can be created with your admin password piped into argon2. The result is a hash value that must be a little modified and then inserted as <yourAdminToken>. It is important that you use single quotes in docker-compose.yml when you insert <yourAdminToken>.

sudo apt install -y argon2
echo -n '<yourAdminPassword>' | argon2 somesalt -e

#This is the result of the argon2 hashing
$argon2i$v=19$m=4096,t=3,p=1$c29tZXNhbHQ$D...

Then you modify the hash by adding a $ sign in front of each $ sign in the hash. In this case we add 5 $ signs.

#original value
$argon2i$v=19$m=4096,t=3,p=1$c29thbHQ$D...

#modified value
$$argon2i$$v=19$$m=4096,t=3,p=1$$c29thbHQ$$D...

Then you put the modified value in single quotes into docker-compose.yml.

#docker-compose.yml

.....

ADMIN_TOKEN: '$$argon2i$$v=19$$m=4096,t=3,p=1$$c29thbHQ$$D...'

Now you can access the admin page with <yourDomain>/admin and login with your admin password.

caddy service:

Uses Caddy web server to reverse proxy to Vaultwarden.

• Handles HTTPS using custom certificates from ./certs.
• Binds to port 443 for secure access.
• Reads its configuration from ./Caddyfile.
• Logs access to /data/access.log (mapped from ./caddy-data on the host).
  

Create Caddyfile

Caddy is a modern, powerful web server that automatically handles HTTPS, reverse proxying, and more. Caddy acts as a secure HTTPS reverse proxy, forwarding external requests to the Vaultwarden Docker container running on internal port 80.

This Caddyfile defines how Caddy should serve and protect your vaultwarden instance over HTTPS.

#Caddyfile
https://<domain> {
  log {
    level INFO
    output file /data/access.log {
      roll_size 10MB
      roll_keep 10
    }
  }

  # Use custom certificate and key
  tls /certs/fullchain.pem /certs/privkey.pem

  # This setting may have compatibility issues with some browsers
  # (e.g., attachment downloading on Firefox). Try disabling this
  # if you encounter issues.
  encode zstd gzip

  # Admin path matcher
  @adminPath path /admin*
  
  # Basic Auth for admin access
  handle @adminPath {
    # If admin path require basic auth
    basicauth {
      superadmin <passwdhash>
    }

    reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
      header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
    }
  }

  # Everything else
  reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
    header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
  }
}

Domain

https://<domain>

This defines the domain name Caddy listens on (e.g. https://yourinstance.example.com).

Logging

log {
  level INFO
  output file /data/access.log {
    roll_size 10MB
    roll_keep 10
  }
}

Logs all access to a file inside the container (/data/access.log), with log rotation.

TLS with Custom Certificates

tls /certs/fullchain.pem /certs/privkey.pem

Use your own Let’s Encrypt certificates from mounted files rather than auto-generating them.

Compression

encode zstd gzip

Enables modern compression methods to improve performance, though may cause issues with attachments on some browsers.

Admin Area Protection

@adminPath path /admin*

Matches all requests to /admin paths.

handle @adminPath {
  basicauth {
    superadmin <passwdhash>
  }

  reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
    header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
  }
}

• Requires HTTP Basic Auth for access to /admin.
• Proxies/Forwards authenticated admin requests to the Vaultwarden container.
• Ensures the backend sees the original client IP address.
  

All Other Requests

reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
  header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
}

• Proxies/Forwards all non-/admin traffic directly to Vaultwarden container.
• Ensures the backend sees the original client IP address.
  

Protect your admin page

To protect your admin page we can use a HTTP Basic Auth. This mean whenever you access <yourDomain>/admin a login window will pop up in your browser and ask you to provide a user name and a password. We use htpasswd which is part of the apache2-utils.

#install apache2-utils if not available
sudo apt install apache2-utils

#Create a hash for the user admin (you can use any user-name) 
htpasswd -nB admin

New password: 
Re-type new password: 
admin:$2y$05$HZukVJWhWMrT7qMO2n65bm/5JYlt5tO...

Then you insert only the hash (without admin: ….) into the Caddyfile.

#Caddyfile

.....

handle @adminPath 
bash
  basicauth {
    admin $2y$05$HZukVJWhWMrT7qMO2n65bm/5JYlt5tO...
  }

Create ssl certificates with Letsencrypt and certbot

You can follow the instructions in my post on digitaldocblog.com. When you followed these instructions your ssl certificates are installed on your server in standalone mode. Whenever you renew your certificates certbot initiates the domain validation challenge and a temporary server will be started trying to listen on port 80. Because we run a web server this port is blocked and the web server must be stoped before we can initiate the renewal process.

To avoid this we should change the certbot renewal from standalone mode to webroot. Webroot is a method that leverages your existing web server to handle the domain validation challenge process without the need to stop the web server. Certbot places a temporary file with a unique token in a specific directory within your web servers public „webroot“ directory (e.g., /var/www/html/.well-known/acme-challenge/). Let’s Encrypt then sends a request to your domain to retrieve this file. Since your web server is already running, it can serve the file without any interruption to your website’s availability.

In our docker.compose.yml we defined the backend service vaultwarden. This service is the backend service listening to port 80. We also defined a web server service caddy listening to port 443.

In our Caddyfile we specified only a web server only for https://<Domain> working as a reverse proxy. Any request for https://<Domain> will be forwarded to the backend service vaultwarden listening on port 80 vaultwarden:80.

To enable webroot for certbot certificate renewal we must change the docker.compose.yml file. For the caddy service and in the ports section we must allow port 80 and expose a webroot directory via port 80 only for serving the domain challenge validation file. Therefore we create on the local host directory /opt/vaultwarden/caddyacme. In the volumes section of the caddy service we map this local directory 1:1 into the caddy container. Note: the notation with the dot like ./caddyacme:/caddyacme requires that the actual Caddyfile is in the same directory /opt/vaultwarden/Caddyfile than /opt/vaultwarden/caddyacme.

#docker-compose.yml

services:
  vaultwarden:
    image: vaultwarden/server:latest
    container_name: vaultwarden
    restart: always
    environment:
      DOMAIN: "https://bitwarden.rottlaender.eu"
      SIGNUPS_ALLOWED: "false"
      SMTP_HOST: "smtp.strato.de"
      SMTP_FROM: "bw@bitwarden.rottlaender.eu"
      SMTP_FROM_NAME: "Vaultwarden"
      SMTP_USERNAME: "bw@bitwarden.rottlaender.eu"
      SMTP_PASSWORD: "ZZqrmQEvydkxY3E2u8Y.KEbKNwgkTV"
      SMTP_SECURITY: "force_tls"
      SMTP_PORT: "465"
      ADMIN_TOKEN: '$$argon2i$$v=19$$m=4096,t=3,p=1$$c29tZXNhbHQ$$D/yu7vPhcpPz8Kk7G/R34YSO+NgtLzai0wVGSGL0RDE'
    volumes:
      - ./vw-data:/data

  caddy:
    image: caddy:2
    container_name: caddy
    restart: always
    ports:
      - 80:80
      - 80:80/udp
      - 443:443
      - 443:443/udp
    volumes:
      - ./Caddyfile:/etc/caddy/Caddyfile:ro
      - ./caddy-config:/config
      - ./caddy-data:/data
      - ./certs:/certs:ro
      - ./caddy_acme:/caddy_acme
    environment:
      DOMAIN: "https://bitwarden.rottlaender.eu"
      LOG_FILE: "/data/access.log"

With this configuration we configure caddy to listen on port 80 and on port 443. In the current ufo firewall configuration we only allow the ports 22 and 443.

#Check the firewall status
sudo ufw status verbose

Status: active
Logging: on (low)
Default: deny (incoming), allow (outgoing), deny (routed)
New profiles: skip

To                         Action      From
--                         ------      ----
22/tcp (OpenSSH)           ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
443                        ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
22/tcp (OpenSSH (v6))      ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)             
443 (v6)                   ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)

We must open port 80 to enable the certbot webroot certificate renewal.

# open port 80
sudo ufw allow 80/tcp

# Check the firewall status
sudo ufw status verbose

Status: active
Logging: on (low)
Default: deny (incoming), allow (outgoing), deny (routed)
New profiles: skip

To                         Action      From
--                         ------      ----
22/tcp (OpenSSH)           ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
443                        ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
80/tcp                     ALLOW IN    Anywhere                  
22/tcp (OpenSSH (v6))      ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)             
443 (v6)                   ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)             
80/tcp (v6)                ALLOW IN    Anywhere (v6)

Then we must also change the Caddyfile. We must insert a http://.. block to enable caddy to serve the ACME challenge.

#Caddyfile

http://bitwarden.rottlaender.eu {
    # Serve ACME Challenge at Port 80
    handle_path /.well-known/acme-challenge/* {
        root * /caddy_acme
        file_server
    }

    # Any other request redirect to HTTPS
    @notACME not path /.well-known/acme-challenge/*
    handle @notACME {
        redir https://bitwarden.rottlaender.eu{uri} permanent
    }
}

https://bitwarden.rottlaender.eu {
  log {
    level INFO
    output file /data/access.log {
      roll_size 10MB
      roll_keep 10
    }
  }

  # Use custom certificate and key
  tls /certs/fullchain.pem /certs/privkey.pem

  # ACME Challenge for Certbot Webroot
  handle_path /.well-known/acme-challenge/* {
    root * /caddy_acme
    file_server
  }

  # This setting may have compatibility issues with some browsers (e.g., attachment downloading on Firefox). Try disabling this if you encounter issues.
  encode zstd gzip

  # Admin path matcher
  @adminPath path /admin*
  
  # Basic Auth for admin access
  handle @adminPath {
    # If admin path require basic auth
    basicauth {
      superadmin $2y$05$HZukVJWhWMrT7qMOIenLkuf2n65bm/6n260TPXKb4Wn825JYlt5tO  # Password Hash
    }

    reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
      header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
    }
  }

  # Everything else
  reverse_proxy vaultwarden:80 {
    header_up X-Real-IP {remote_host}
  }
}

Then we must also change the /etc/letsencrypt/renewal/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu.conf to configure certbot to use webroot instead of standalone. Here change the authenticator directive to webroot and we add the webrootpath. Everything else keep the same.

# renew_before_expiry = 30 days
version = 1.21.0
archive_dir = /etc/letsencrypt/archive/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu
cert = /etc/letsencrypt/live/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu/cert.pem
privkey = /etc/letsencrypt/live/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu/privkey.pem
chain = /etc/letsencrypt/live/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu/chain.pem
fullchain = /etc/letsencrypt/live/bitwarden.rottlaender.eu/fullchain.pem

# Options used in the renewal process
[renewalparams]
account = 7844ed1ad487ff139e3adaa80aa7bbab
authenticator = webroot
webroot_path = /opt/vaultwarden/caddy_acme
server = https://acme-v02.api.letsencrypt.org/directory
renew_hook = /usr/local/bin/sync-certs.sh

And finally we must change the entry in the crontab. Before the depoly-hook we change the code to –webroot -w /opt/vaultwarden/caddyacme. This renewal will be executed daily at 03:30h. In case the certificates are still valid (no renewal required) then the deploy-hook will be skipped. Only in case a renewal must be executed the script /usr/local/bin/sync-certs.sh will be executed.

#crontab

30 3 * * * sh -c '/usr/bin/certbot renew --webroot -w /opt/vaultwarden/caddy_acme --deploy-hook /usr/local/bin/sync-certs.sh >> /var/log/certbot-renew.log 2>&1'

Create sync-certs.sh script and root crontab

This script copies renewed Let’s Encrypt certificates from the standard location to a custom destination /opt/vaultwarden/certs, sets strict permissions, assigns correct ownership, and restarts the Caddy container to apply the new certificates. At the end it reloads the Caddy container (via docker-compose restart) to apply new certs.

#!/bin/bash

# Variables
DOMAIN="<Domain>"
SRC="/etc/letsencrypt/live/$DOMAIN"
DEST="/opt/vaultwarden/certs"

# Check Source Directory
if [ ! -d "$SRC" ]; then
    echo "Certificate Path $SRC not found"
    exit 1
fi

# Check Destination Directory
if [ ! -d "$DEST" ]; then
    mkdir -p "$DEST"
    chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden "$DEST"
    chmod 700 "$DEST"
    echo "Target Path $DEST created"
fi

# Copy files (overwrite)
cp "$SRC/fullchain.pem" "$DEST/fullchain.pem"
cp "$SRC/privkey.pem" "$DEST/privkey.pem"

# set owner:group vaultwarden
chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden "$DEST/fullchain.pem"
chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden "$DEST/privkey.pem"

# set access (read write only vaultwarden)
chmod 600 "$DEST/privkey.pem"
chmod 600 "$DEST/fullchain.pem"

echo "[sync-certs] Certificates for $DOMAIN synced"

# successful sync of certificates – caddy re-start
echo "[sync-certs] re-start caddy ..."
cd /opt/vaultwarden
/usr/local/bin/docker-compose restart caddy

echo "[sync-certs] caddy reloaded new certificates"

Check Source Directory

if [ ! -d "$SRC" ]; then
    echo "Certificate Path $SRC not found"
    exit 1
fi

• What it checks: Whether the Let’s Encrypt certificate source directory for the domain exists.
• Why it’s needed:
  
  • Let’s Encrypt stores certificates as symlinks in /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain>.
  • If this folder doesn’t exist, the script stops immediately to avoid copying from a missing or invalid source.
• Fail-safe: Prevents copying non-existent files, which would cause later commands to fail.
  

Check and Create Destination Directory

if [ ! -d "$DEST" ]; then
    mkdir -p "$DEST"
    chown vaultwarden:vaultwarden "$DEST"
    chmod 700 "$DEST"
    echo "Target Path $DEST created"
fi

• What it checks: Whether the destination directory for the copied certificates exists.
• If not:
  
  • It creates the directory (mkdir -p ensures parent paths are created if missing).
  • Sets secure permissions:
    
    • Owner: vaultwarden
    • Permissions: 700 – only the vaultwarden user can access the directory.
• Why this matters:
  
  • The vaultwarden container or process needs access to the certificates.
  • These permissions ensure only vaultwarden can read the certs, improving security.
    

Start, Stop and Check containers

Here are the most important docker-compose commands. Run these commands when you are in the directory where the docker-compose.yml file is and be sure that the logged in user is in the docker group (otherwise these commands work with sudo).

Here art the most important docker commands to check the status of containers.

Backup the vaultwarden data

To backup your database you must login to your remote server and navigate to the directory /opt/vaulwarden/vw-data.

cd /opt/vaultwarden/vw-data
ls -l /opt/vaultwarden/vw-data

drwxr-xr-x 2 root root    4096 Mai 14 07:29 attachments
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1437696 Mai 29 10:03 db_20250529_080308.sqlite3
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1437696 Mai 29 10:04 db_20250529_080448.sqlite3
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1445888 Aug  9 08:31 db_20250809_063113.sqlite3
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1552384 Aug 10 07:26 db.sqlite3
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root   32768 Sep  3 08:27 db.sqlite3-shm
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root  135992 Sep  3 08:27 db.sqlite3-wal
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root   16384 Sep  3 07:57 icon_cache
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root    1675 Mai 14 07:29 rsa_key.pem
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root    4096 Mai 14 07:29 sends
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root    4096 Mai 14 07:29 tmp

Before we run the backup here are some background infos.

Note: Pls. Be aware that you are currently navigating within your remote server not within the container vaultwarden. Under the service vaultwarden and volumes we defined in docker-compose.yml that the directory ./vw-data should be mounted into the container under the directory of /data. This mean that these directories are synchronized and you can check this by navigating within the container as follows.

To navigate within the container vaultwarden you can run the following commands.

#list your containers home directory
docker exec vaultwarden ls -l /

#list the data directory within your container
docker exec vaultwarden ls -l /data

With docker exec vaultwarden ls -l / you list your container root directory. Here you find among others the file vaultwarden which is basically the main program. With docker exec vaultwarden ls -l /data you list the files in /data on container side. You see exact the same files than in ./vw-data on your remote server.

All data of your vaultwarden service are stored in /data on container side. Here you have the database db.sqlite3 and various directories and other files.

To backup these data you run the program vaultwarden with the option backup.

#interactive mode
docker exec -it vaultwarden /vaultwarden backup

#standard mode
docker exec vaultwarden /vaultwarden backup
Backup to 'data/db_20250905_045937.sqlite3' was successful

The option exec -it is not necessary. It runs the command in interactive mode within the terminal.

This script:

1. Reads the database location and configurations on container side in /data.
2. Creates a backup of the SQLite database db.sqlite3, attachments, icons, etc.
3. Compresses everything as a .tar.gz archive.
4. Stores the archive in the /data directory on container side.
   

After executing this command the backup will be also be present in ./vw-data on your remote server.

Then you can download the backup from your remote server to your local computer. Note: Your local computer is in my case a Mac where I sit in front of and from where I connect to my remote server via ssh.

To download the backup you navigate on your local computer to the directory where you want to store your backup files. Then you run the scp command with the . at the end and download the backup files from your remote server into the current directory which should be your backup directory on your local computer.

#on your local computer
cd /Users/patrick/Software/docker/vaultwarden/backup

scp user@remote-host:/opt/vaultwarden/vw-data/<backupfile> .

sudo apt update
sudo apt install certbot

Then we run certbot.

sudo certbot certonly --standalone -d <yourDomain>

Saving debug log to /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log
Enter email address (used for urgent renewal and security notices)
 (Enter 'c' to cancel): <yourEmail>

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Please read the Terms of Service at
https://letsencrypt.org/documents/LE-SA-v1.5-February-24-2025.pdf. You must
agree in order to register with the ACME server. Do you agree?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Y)es/(N)o: Y

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Would you be willing, once your first certificate is successfully issued, to
share your email address with the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a founding
partner of the Let's Encrypt project and the non-profit organization that
develops Certbot? We'd like to send you email about our work encrypting the web,
EFF news, campaigns, and ways to support digital freedom.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Y)es/(N)o: Y
Account registered.
Requesting a certificate for <yourDomain>

Successfully received certificate.
Certificate is saved at: /etc/letsencrypt/live/<yourDomain>/fullchain.pem
Key is saved at:         /etc/letsencrypt/live/<yourDomain>/privkey.pem
This certificate expires on 2025-07-25.
These files will be updated when the certificate renews.
Certbot has set up a scheduled task to automatically renew this certificate in the background.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
If you like Certbot, please consider supporting our work by:
 * Donating to ISRG / Let's Encrypt:   https://letsencrypt.org/donate
 * Donating to EFF:                    https://eff.org/donate-le
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

The Letsencrypt certificates are automatically stored by certbot in the directory /etc/letsencrypt. Pls. Check the permissions accordingly.

#700 for letsencrypt and owned by root
sudo ls -l /etc
drwx------ 9 root  root    4096 Mai 22 04:49 letsencrypt

#750 for archive and live and owned by root 
ls -l /etc/letsencrypt
drwx------ 3 root root 4096 Apr 26 10:16 accounts
drwxr-x--- 3 root root 4096 Apr 26 10:18 archive
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root  207 Nov 12  2021 cli.ini
drwx------ 2 root root 4096 Mai 16 07:15 csr
drwx------ 2 root root 4096 Mai 16 07:15 keys
drwxr-x--- 3 root root 4096 Apr 26 10:18 live
drwxr-x--- 2 root root 4096 Mai 16 07:15 renewal
drwxr-xr-x 5 root root 4096 Apr 26 10:16 renewal-hooks

#700 for the directory with the real certificates 
sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/archive
drwx------ 2 root root 4096 Mai 16 07:15 <domain>

#750 for the directory with the symlinks
sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/live
drwxr-x--- 2 root root 4096 Mai 16 07:15 <domain>

note: Permissions in Linux are set using the following scheme.

The following permissions are recommended:

The keys are set up the following structure:

• In /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain> there are only symlinks that point to the real key files
• the real files are stored in /etc/letsencrypt/archive/<domain>
  

A symlink itself in /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain> has no real permissions. It effectively inherits the access rights of the file it points to. However: ls -l shows symbolic permissions which, for symlinks, are usually lrwxrwxrwx. This isn’t problematic in itself, since access is always controlled by the target files.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/live/<domain>
total 4
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  48 Mai 16 07:15 cert.pem -> ../../
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  49 Mai 16 07:15 chain.pem -> ../../
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  53 Mai 16 07:15 fullchain.pem -> ../../
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  51 Mai 16 07:15 privkey.pem -> ../../

Important are the permissions of the actual certificate files in the directory /etc/letsencrypt/archive/<domain>. The permissions should be set as follows.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/archive/<domain>
total 32
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1858 Apr 26 10:18 cert1.pem
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1801 Apr 26 10:18 chain1.pem
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3659 Apr 26 10:18 fullchain1.pem
-rw------- 1 root root 1704 Apr 26 10:18 privkey1.pem

You should pay special attention to some other files.

/etc/letsencrypt/accounts/acme-<v02.api>/directory/<accountID>

The files meta.json, regr.json and private_key.json in the accounts directory should be owned by root and only root should have access. These files contain your Let’s Encrypt account credentials, especially the private account key, and are therefore highly sensitive.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/accounts/acme-<v02.api>/directory/<accountID>
total 12
-rw------- 1 root root   85 Apr 26 10:18 meta.json
-r-------- 1 root root 1632 Apr 26 10:17 private_key.json
-rw------- 1 root root   80 Apr 26 10:17 regr.json

private_key.json: Contains your ACME account key – this is like a password for your certificate management.

• Read-only: The file must be readable by root so that Let’s Encrypt (or other tools like certbot) can communicate with this key to renew or issue certificates.
• Write-protected: Making the file unreadable even by root prevents it from being modified accidentally or through an unsafe operation. The private key should not be changed, as this could prevent access to your Let’s Encrypt account.

meta.json: Contains information such as the registered email address.

regr.json: Let’s Encrypt registration details.

A leak of these files would allow attackers to:

• Hijack your Let’s Encrypt account
• Issue certificates for any domain (if DNS access is compromised)
• Tamper or delete existing certificates
  

/etc/letsencrypt/csr and /etc/letsencrypt/keys directory

The files in the /etc/letsencrypt/csr and /etc/letsencrypt/keys directories should have the following permissions to ensure security.

Directory /etc/letsencrypt/csr stores Certificate Signing Requests (CSRs) generated by Certbot during certificate issuance or renewal. These are not used after issuance — they are kept for reference or debugging, not for active use.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/csr
total 8
-rw------- 1 root root 936 Apr 26 10:18 0000_csr-certbot.pem
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 936 Mai 16 07:15 0001_csr-certbot.pem

CSR files contain requests for certificate issuance and may contain sensitive information, such as the public key associated with a private key. Although the CSR file itself does not contain the private key, it can still pose informational risks because it represents an association with a private key.

Security measure: Access should be restricted to root to prevent an attacker from tampering with or accessing the CSR files.

Issue:After a renewal of the certificates on Mai 16 you can see above that the permissions to the file 0001_csr-certbot.pem has been set by certbot to 644. You can correct this with the following command.

sudo find /etc/letsencrypt/csr -name '*.pem' -exec chmod 600 {} +

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/csr
total 8
-rw------- 1 root root 936 Apr 26 10:18 0000_csr-certbot.pem
-rw------- 1 root root 936 Mai 16 07:15 0001_csr-certbot.pem

Directory /etc/letsencrypt/keys holds actual private keys used to sign CSRs and serve HTTPS. They must never be world-readable.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/keys
total 8
-rw------- 1 root root 1704 Apr 26 10:18 0000_key-certbot.pem
-rw------- 1 root root 1704 Mai 16 07:15 0001_key-certbot.pem

Private keys are critical for security because they are used for authentication during certificate requests and for encrypting and decrypting data. The private key should be readable and writable only by root to prevent unauthorized access. Important: Any user with access to these key files could perform encryption operations or misuse certificates.

/etc/letsencrypt/renewal/<yourDomain>.conf

The file /etc/letsencrypt/renewal/<yourDomain>.conf contains the configuration for automatic certificate renewal and can contain sensitive data, such as the paths to private keys and certificates. Therefore, it is important to secure this file accordingly. The file should only be readable and writable by root, as it contains potentially sensitive information about the certificate configuration and the paths to private keys.

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/renewal
total 4
-rw------- 1 root root 606 Mai 16 07:15 <yourDomain>.conf

1. docker: Docker is a tool for building, running, and managing containers. A container is a lightweight, isolated environment that packages an application and all its dependencies (Docker application).
2. docker-compose: Docker Compose is a tool for defining and running multi-container Docker applications using a single file called docker-compose.yml.
3. node.js: Node.js is a JavaScript runtime that lets you run JavaScript outside the browser, typically on the server. It’s built on Chrome’s V8 engine, and it’s great for building fast, scalable network applications, like APIs or web servers.
4. npm: npm stands for Node Package Manager. It’s a tool that comes with Node.js and is used to Install packages (libraries, tools, frameworks), manage project dependencies and share your own packages with others.
5. curl: curl is a command-line tool used to send requests to URLs. It lets you interact with APIs or download content from the internet right from your terminal.
6. gnupg: GnuPG (or GPG, short for Gnu Privacy Guard) is a tool for encryption and signing data and communications. It uses public-key cryptography to encrypt, decrypt, sign, and verify files or messages.
7. ca-certificates: A collection of trusted root certificates used to validate HTTPS connections.
   

We must check if these packages are already installed on our system. Therefore we use the following commands in the terminal and see if there is any output. If there is no output the packages are not installed and we continue with the installation as described below.

# check the docker components
docker --version
docker-compose --version

#check the node and npm components
node --version
npm --version

#check if required dependencies are already installed
curl --version
gpg --version

In case some of these packages are already installed on your system you need to reduce the installation scope of the packages accordingly.

We expect to have no output after typing the above commands and go through the installation process step-by-step.

Step 1: Install node.js and npm from the standard Ubuntu resources.

Step 2:

• Prepare the system for secure downloads from Docker resources and
• install ca-certificates, curl and gnupg from standard Ubuntu resources

Step 3: Install Docker from Docker resources.

Step 4: Install docker-compose standalone from Docker resources.

Install Node.js and npm from Ubuntu Resources

Before we start with the installation we update and upgrade all packages. Node.js is available in Ubuntu’s repositories, so you can install it with the following commands.

sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade

sudo apt install -y nodejs npm

Verify the installation:

node -v
npm -v

Prepare the System for secure Downloads from Docker

To prepare our system we ensure that ca-certificates, curl and gnupg are available on our system.

To be able to install the Docker packages from the external or not Ubuntu Docker repository apt must know where these resources are otherwise apt would install the packages from the Ubuntu repositories which would be the standard but not what we want. Therefore we must add the Docker repository to the apt tool. The complete process can be followed on the Docker Manual Pages.

When we add the Docker repository, the packages from that repository are digitally signed to ensure that these packages really come from docker. gnupg is a tool that allows our system to check these signatures against a trusted Docker GPG key. Therefore gnupg must be available on our system.

To make sure that the GPG key is available we must download the key from the Docker site. For the download we use the curl tool. Therefore curl must be available on our system.

We access the Docker site via HTTPS. Here ca-certificates comes into play. ca-certificates is a collection of trusted root certificates used to validate HTTPS connections. When downloading the Docker GPG key or accessing the Docker apt repository via HTTPS, Ubuntu checks the site’s SSL certificate against the collection of trusted root certificates. Therefore ca-certificates must be available on our system.

To check if ca-certificates is already installed we run the following command:

dpkg -l | grep ca-certificates

Note: The dpkg command stands for Debian Package Manager and is used to manage .deb packages on Debian-based systems like Ubuntu. It works at a lower level than apt, which is a higher-level package management tool that uses dpkg under the hood.

If it’s installed, you’ll see output like this:

ii ca-certificates 20230311ubuntu0.22.04.1 all Common CA..

In this case you do not need to install ca-certificates as describes below but it is highly recommended to update the collection of trusted root certificates before you continue.

sudo update-ca-certificates

We assume that we must install ca-certificates, curl and gnupg. First, we update the system package list to ensure everything is up-to-date on our system. This checks the installed packages for updates and upgrade the packages if required in one process. Then we install ca-certificates, curl and gnupg.

sudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y

sudo apt install -y ca-certificates curl gnupg

Add Docker GPG key:

To install the GPG keys from Docker we run the following command.

sudo install -m 0755 -d /etc/apt/keyrings
curl -fsSL https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg | sudo tee /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc > /dev/null
sudo chmod a+r /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc

Let’s break down the full set of commands step by step:

sudo install -m 0755 -d /etc/apt/keyrings ….

• sudo runs the command with superuser (root) privileges.
• install is used for copying files and setting permissions.

note: This command is only sudo install and not sudo apt install . If we use apt install then this installs software packages from Ubuntu’s package repositories. Example: sudo apt install docker-ce. It’s used to install applications.

Only install is a Unix command (part of coreutils) used to create directories, copy files, and set permissions in a single step. Example: sudo install -m 0755 -d /etc/apt/keyrings. It’s used to prepare the system, not install software. So this command creates the /etc/apt/keyrings folder with secure permissions, which is later used to store GPG keyring files (such as Docker’s signing key).

• -m 0755 sets file permissions:
  
  • 0755 means:
  • 1st (0) is just a numerical representation
  • 2nd (7) is for the Owner (root) having 1 x read (4) + 1 x write (2) + 1 x execute (1) = 7 permissions.
  • 3rd (5) is for the Group (root) having 1 x read (4) + 0 x write (2) + 1 x execute (1) = 5 permissions (no write).
  • 4th (5) is for the Others having 1 x read (4) + 0 x write (2) + 1 x execute (1) = 5 permissions (no write).
• -d tells install to create a directory
• /etc/apt/keyrings is the target directory where the Docker GPG key will be stored.

What it does?

• Ensures that the /etc/apt/keyrings directory exists.
• Sets the correct permissions (readable but not writable by non-root users).
• This is a security best practice to keep GPG keys safe from tampering.
  

curl -fsSL https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg | sudo tee /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc > /dev/null …

• curl a command-line tool to fetch files from a URL (we have installed it before)
• -fsSL flags to control curl behavior:
  
  • -f (fail silently on server http errors like 404 – site or resource not found).
  • -s (silent mode, no progress output).
  • -S (shows error messages if -s is used).
  • -L (follows redirects if the URL points elsewhere).
• https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg the URL for Docker’s GPG key file (the file name on the docker site is gpg).
• | (pipe) passes the downloaded data (the gpg file) to another command. In this case the data will be passed to the following sudo command.
• sudo tee /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc writes the key to before created directory /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc:
  
  • tee writes the output to a file (here it is docker.asc) while also displaying it in the terminal.
  • sudo ensures that the file is written with root permissions.
• > /dev/null redirects standard output to /dev/null to suppress unnecessary output. The tee command can also display and write at the same time, unless you silence it with > /dev/null.
  

note: sudo tee… runs with root permissions, so the file can be written even to protected directories such as /etc/apt/keyrings/ (we have set the permission to 0755. See above). You can also run the curl command with root permissions (sudo curl …) and then directly pass the output into a file with the -o option: sudo curl -fsSL https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg -o /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc. This is suggested on the Docker Manaual Page but you can do it in both ways.

What it does?

• Downloads Docker’s official GPG key.
• Saves it securely in /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc.
• Ensures the key isn’t printed to the terminal.
  

sudo chmod a+r /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc

• sudo runs the command (in this case the chmod command) as root.
• chmod modifies file permissions.
  
  • a+r grants read (r) permission to all users (a).
• /etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc the file whose permissions are being modified.

What it does?

• Ensures that all users (including apt processes) can read the GPG key.
• This is necessary so that apt can verify Docker package signatures when installing updates.
  

Previously, GPG files were stored in /etc/apt/trusted.gpg. This has changed.

Why Is This Necessary?

1. Security:

• Storing GPG keys in /etc/apt/keyrings/ instead of /etc/apt/trusted.gpg is a best practice.
• Prevents malicious modifications to package signatures.

1. Package Verification:

• The GPG key allows Ubuntu’s package manager (apt) to verify that Docker packages are genuine and not tampered with.

1. Future-proofing:

• Newer versions of Ubuntu prefer keys in /etc/apt/keyrings/ instead of the older /etc/apt/trusted.gpg.
  

Final Summary:

Add the Docker repository:

To install the docker resources to the apt sources list we run the following command.

echo "deb [arch=$(dpkg --print-architecture) signed-by=/etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc] https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu $(lsb_release -cs) stable" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/docker.list > /dev/null

Let’s break down the command step by step:

echo „deb….“

The echo command output the text between the “….“. This is the APT repository entry for Docker. Let’s analyze its components:

• deb → Indicates that this is a Debian-based software repository.
• arch=$(dpkg –print-architecture):
  
  • dpkg –print-architecture dynamically retrieves the system architecture from your system (e.g., amd64, arm64).
  • This ensures that the correct package version for your system’s architecture is used.
• signed-by=/etc/apt/keyrings/docker.asc specifies the location of the docker GPG key docker.asc (we installed it before), which is used to verify the authenticity of packages downloaded from the repository.
• https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu the URL of Docker’s official repository.
• $(lsb_release -cs) dynamically fetches the codename of the Ubuntu version (e.g., jammy for Ubuntu 22.04).
  
  • This ensures that the correct repository for the current Ubuntu version is used.
• stable specifies that we are using the stable release channel of Docker.

| sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/docker.list

• The | (pipe) takes the output of echo and passes it to the tee command.
• sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/docker.list does the following:
  
  • tee writes the output to a file (/etc/apt/sources.list.d/docker.list).
  • sudo is required because writing to /etc/apt/sources.list.d/ requires root privileges.

> /dev/null

• The > /dev/null part discards the standard output of the tee command.
  
  • This prevents unnecessary output from being displayed in the terminal.
  • Without this, tee would both write to the file and display the text on the screen.
    

Install Docker from Docker Resources

Now, update the package list again and install Docker.

sudo apt update

sudo apt install -y docker-ce docker-ce-cli containerd.io docker-buildx-plugin

This command installs the following Docker key components using the apt package manager on Ubuntu (the -y option automatically answers „yes“ to all prompts, so the install runs without asking for confirmation).

docker-ce

• Docker Community Edition
• This is the core Docker Engine, the daemon that runs containers.
• Installs the Docker server that manages images, containers, volumes, and networks.

docker-ce-cli

• Docker Command-Line Interface
• This is the docker command you use in your terminal (e.g., docker run, docker ps, etc.).
• Separates the CLI from the engine so they can be updated independently.

containerd.io

• Container runtime
• A lightweight, powerful runtime for containers, used internally by Docker.
• Handles the actual low-level execution of containers.

docker-buildx-plugin

• BuildKit-powered Docker build plugin
• Adds docker buildx functionality for advanced builds, multi-arch images, and caching strategies.
• Useful when building complex container images.
  

Note: In some documentation you will see that the sudo apt install… command will include also the docker-compose-plugin. The docker-compose-plugin is not required here because we are using the docker-compose stand alone packed (see below). The docker-compose-plugin is integrated into the Docker CLI and can replace the docker-compose standalone binary. But we use the standalone version because of the lightweight minimal install, the backward compatibility and the easy and independent manual version control.

It is highly recommended to omit the docker-compose-plugin from your apt install command if you plan to install the standalone version of Docker Compose binary manually as we will do later. If you have both versions installed this can cause confusion, especially if scripts assume one or the other. Also, Docker might prioritize the plugin version in newer setups which might cause conflicts in our preferred standalone Docker Compose setup. The following table illustrates the problem because the command styles differ only very little.

In case the docker-compose-plugin has been installed on your system you can remove it with the following command:

sudo apt remove docker-compose-plugin

This removes the plugin version that integrates into the docker compose command. Later when we installed the standalone version of docker compose we use the commands instead of the space with a dash like docker-compose.

Verify that Docker is installed correctly:

sudo docker --version

Enable and start the Docker service:

sudo systemctl enable docker
sudo systemctl start docker

Test Docker by running the hello-world image.

sudo docker run hello-world

This command is a quick test to verify that Docker is installed and working correctly.

sudo

• Runs the command with superuser (root) privileges.
• Required unless your user is in the docker group.
• Docker needs elevated permissions to communicate with the Docker daemon (which runs as root).

docker

• The main Docker CLI (Command-Line Interface) tool.
• Used to interact with Docker Engine to manage containers, images, networks, volumes, etc.

run

• Tells Docker to create a new container and start it based on the hello-world image you specify.
  It does the following:
  
  • Pulls the image (if it’s not already downloaded).
  • Creates a new container from that image.
  • Starts and runs the container.
  • Outputs the result and then exits (for short-lived containers like hello-world).

hello-world

• This is the name of the Docker image.
• It’s an official image maintained by Docker, specifically designed to test Docker installations.
  

Install standalone docker-compose from Docker Resources

Installing the standalone docker-compose is useful when you:

• Need compatibility with legacy tools or scripts
• Want to control the exact version
• Prefer a lightweight, portable binary
  

The following command downloads the latest standalone docker-compose binary and saves it to a system-wide location.

sudo curl -L "https://github.com/docker/compose/releases/latest/download/docker-compose-$(uname -s)-$(uname -m)" -o /usr/local/bin/docker-compose

Let’s break down the command step by step:

sudo

• Runs the command with root privileges.
  
  • Required because /usr/local/bin is a protected directory that only root can write to.

curl

• A command-line tool used to download files from the internet.

-L

• Tells curl to follow redirects.
• GitHub uses redirects for release URLs, so this flag ensures the final binary is actually downloaded.

„https://github.com/docker/compose/releases/latest/download/docker-compose-$(uname -s)-$(uname -m)“

URL with Substitution. This ensures the correct binary is downloaded for your system. This is the dynamic download URL for the latest docker-compose release.

• $(uname -s) returns the operating system name (e.g., Linux, Darwin).
• $(uname -m) returns the architecture (e.g., x8664, arm64).

Example Output: https://github.com/docker/compose/releases/latest/download/docker-compose-Linux-x8664

-o /usr/local/bin/docker-compose

• Tells curl to write (-o option; output) the downloaded file to /usr/local/bin/docker-compose
• This is a standard location for user-installed binaries that are globally available in the system PATH.
  

After you run the command above you must do this. Give execution permissions. You’ll need to make the binary executable:

sudo chmod +x /usr/local/bin/docker-compose

And then check the version to confirm it worked:

docker-compose --version

Note: In some cases it might be necessary to switch to the docker compose plugin. This mean you must remove the standalone version from your system and install the docker compose plugin instead. Here is how you should proceed in such a scenario:

#find our where docker-compose has been installed
which docker-compose
/usr/bin/docker-compose

#remove file docker-compose 
sudo rm /usr/bin/docker-compose

#intstall docker compose plugin via docker
sudo apt install docker-compose-plugin

Final Verification

Check if everything is installed correctly:

docker --version
docker-compose --version
node -v
npm -v

Host-Docker-Setup for nodejs app behind nginx

The code of the nodejs app is explained in detail in the article Bootstrap Website running as nodejs app.

We have a simple website funtrails build in a one-page index.html with two sections: one section showing pictures of a Paterlini bike and one for showing pictures of a Gianni Motta bike. Each section containing an image gallery and text. The images are stored in an images directory.

  ├── .
	├── images
	├── index.html

Now we want to make this funtrails website run as a nodejs app behind a nginx reverse proxy. Both, the funtrails nodejs app and nginx should run in docker containers composed to work together. Therefore we crate the following file structure on the Host machine:

 ├── node
	├── funtrails
        │    ├─ views    
        │       ├── images
	│	├── index.html
	├── nginx

We copy all our web-content into the views directory under funtrails. The nodejs app is build in the mainfile app.js. All Dependencies for the nodejs app are defined the file package.json.

 ├── node
	├── funtrails
        │    ├─ app.js
    	│    ├─ package.json
        │    ├─ views    
        │       ├── images
	│	├── index.html
	├── nginx

In the Terminal go into the node/funtrails directory. Install the dependencies.

npm install

Then we have the following structure.

funtrails
├── app.js
├── node_modules
├── package.json
├── package-lock.json
└── views
    ├── images
    └── index.html

Go to node/funtrails. Run a test with the following command.

node app.js

nodejs funtrails demo app listening on port 8080!

Switch to your browser and hit http://localhost:8080 to see if all is working as expected. With Ctrl c in the terminal you can stop the app.

The nginx server will be started with the configuration of a nginx.conf file. The file nginx.conf will be created under nginx.

Note: This file nginx.conf is only for testing and will be changed when we add the SSL/TLS certificates. In this configuration below the nginx server will listen on port 80 and pass requests received from port 80 to the nodejs app listening on port 8080. Processing requests from port 80 is not state of the art as these connections are not encrypted. In production we need a port 443 connection with SSL/TLS for encrypted connections.

#nginx.conf

events {}

http {
	#Service node-app from docker-compose.yml
    upstream node_app {
        server node-app:8080;  
    }

    server {
        listen 80;

        location / {
            proxy_pass http://node_app;
            proxy_set_header Host $host;
            proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;
            proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
            proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-Proto $scheme;
        }
    }
}

events {}

• This is a required block in NGINX configuration, even if empty.
• It handles connection-related events (like concurrent connections), but you don’t need to configure it unless you have advanced use cases.

http {

• Starts the HTTP configuration block — this is where you define web servers, upstreams, headers, etc.

upstream

• Defines a group of backend servers (can be one or many).
• node_app is just a name.
• Inside: server node-app:8080; means:
  
  • Forward traffic to the container with hostname node-app
  • Use port 8080 (that’s where your nodejs app listens)
  • node-app should match the docker-compose service name (node-app must be declared in your docker-compose.yml which will be explained below).
  • This lets you use proxy_pass http://nodeapp later, instead of hardcoding an IP or port.

server

• Defines a virtual server (a website or domain).
• listen 80; tells NGINX to listen for HTTP (port 80) traffic.

location

• Defines a rule for requests to / (the root URL of your site).
• You could add more location blocks for /api, /images, etc. if needed.
• Inside:
  
  • proxy_pass:
    
    • proxy_pass http://node_app; Tells NGINX to forward requests to the backend defined in upstream nodeapp
    • So: if you go to http://yourdomain.com/ NGINX proxies that to http://node-app:8080
• proxysetheader (see table)

The $variables in nginx.conf are built-in variables that NGINX provides automatically. They are dynamically set based on the incoming HTTP request. So these variables come from the NGINX core HTTP module and you don’t need to define them or import anything. They are always available in the config.

Here’s what each one is and where it comes from:

$host

• The value of the Host header in the original HTTP request.
• Example: If the user visits http://example.com, then $host is example.com.
• Use case: Tells the backend app what domain the client used — useful for apps serving multiple domains.

$remote_addr

• The IP address of the client making the request.
• Example: If someone from IP 203.0.113.45 visits your site, this variable is set to 203.0.113.45.
• Use case: Useful for logging, rate limiting, or geolocation in the backend app.

$proxy_add_x_forwarded_for

• A composite header that appends the client’s IP to the existing X-Forwarded-For header.
• Use case: Maintains a full list of proxy hops (useful if your request goes through multiple reverse proxies).
• If X-Forwarded-For is already set (by another proxy), it appends $remote_addr to it; otherwise, it sets it to $remote_addr.

$scheme

• The protocol used by the client to connect to NGINX — either http or https.
• Example: If the user visits https://example.com, then $scheme is https.
• Use case: Lets your backend know whether the original request was secure or not.
  

Then we have the following structure.

 ├── node
	├── funtrails
	│    ├─ app.js
    	│    ├─ package.json
        │    ├─ views    
        │       ├── images
	│	├── index.html
	├── nginx
            ├── nginx.conf

Create Docker Image and Container for nodejs app

This is to create the Docker Image with docker build. Then we run the Container from the image with docker run to test if everything is working as expected. If everything goes well we can go ahead with the nginx configuration and then with the composition of all together with docker-compose.

The dockerization process of the nodejs app in node/funtrails directory is controlled by the Dockerfile which will be created in node/funtrails. The dockerization process has the following steps.

1. Image creation
2. Container creation from the image
   

The Container can then be started, stopped and removed using terminal commands.

Go into in node/funtrails.

To get an Overview and check the Docker status of the system.

List all images. No images on your system.

sudo docker image ls

REPOSITORY   TAG       IMAGE ID   CREATED   SIZE  

List all Containers. As expected no Containers on the system.

sudo docker ps -a
CONTAINER ID   IMAGE     COMMAND   CREATED   STATUS    PORTS     NAMES

List an Overview about Docker Images and Containers on your system. As expected no Containers and no Images on the system.

sudo docker system df

TYPE            TOTAL     ACTIVE    SIZE      RECLAIMABLE
Images          0         0         0B        0B
Containers      0         0         0B        0B
Local Volumes   0         0         0B        0B
Build Cache     16        0         47.39MB   47.39MB

Create a Dockerfile in node/funtrails/Dockerfile. This file is required to build the image and run the Container.

#Dockerfile

#Image Build
#Install nodejs 12.22.9 for the Container
FROM node:12.22.9

#Set workdirectory for the Container
WORKDIR /home/node/app

#Change Owner and Group for Container Workdirectory to node
RUN chown node:node /home/node/app

#Run the Container with User node
USER node

#Copy all files from HOST Dir to the Container workdirectory 
COPY --chown=node:node . .

#(After COPY) Run the command to create Image for the Container
RUN npm install

#Container Start
#Open Port 8080 when the Container starts
EXPOSE 8080

#RUN the command when the Container starts
CMD [ "node", "app.js" ]
 

Create a .dockerignore file in node/funtrails/.dockerignore. The hidden dockerignore file exclude only files from the Host that will be copied into the image for the Container with the command COPY . .

#.dockerignore
node_modules

Note: In case you copy files from the Host into the image directly with I.e. COPY <file.1> <file.2> then file.1 and file.2 would be copies even if they would be listed in dockerignore.

We have the following structure on the Host machine.

funtrails
├─ Dockerfile
├─ .dockerignore
├── app.js
├── node_modules
├── package.json
├── package-lock.json
└── views
    ├── images
    └── index.html

Still be in node/funtrails.

Build the Docker image from the Dockerfile with the image name node-demo. The dot (.) at the end set the current directory on the Host machine for the docker command. This is location where docker is looking for the Dockerfile to build the image.

sudo docker build -t node-demo .

List all Docker images. 1 images just created.

sudo docker image ls

REPOSITORY   TAG       IMAGE ID       CREATED          SIZE
node-demo    latest    c353353f045e   22 seconds ago   944MB

Run the Container from the image with the name node-demo and give the Container the name funtrails-solo-demo.

sudo docker run -d -p 8080:8080 --name funtrails-solo-demo node-demo

List all Docker Containers with the option -a. 1 Container with the name funtrails-solo-demo running from the image node-demo.

sudo docker ps -a

Access the running app on port 8080.

sudo curl http://localhost:8080

If everything went well you get a feedback in the terminal showing the HTML code. In this case the Test was successful.

Stop the running Docker Container with the name funtrails-solo-demo.

sudo docker stop funtrails-solo-demo

List all Containers with the option -a. 1 Container from the image node-demo with the name funtrails-solo-demo is EXITED.

sudo docker ps -a

List all images. Still 1 image available.

sudo docker image ls

REPOSITORY   TAG       IMAGE ID       CREATED        SIZE
node-demo    latest    c353353f045e   36 hours ago   944MB

List an Overview about Docker Images and Containers on the system. 1 active Image and 1 not Active Container. Status of the Container is EXITED as we have seen above.

sudo docker system df

TYPE            TOTAL     ACTIVE    SIZE      RECLAIMABLE
Images          1         1         944MB     0B (0%)
Containers      1         0         0B        0B
Local Volumes   0         0         0B        0B
Build Cache     18        0         47.39MB   47.39MB

To clean up your system use the following commands.

The full clean up (be careful).

sudo docker system prune -a

sudo docker system df

TYPE            TOTAL     ACTIVE    SIZE      RECLAIMABLE
Images          0         0         0B        0B
Containers      0         0         0B        0B
Local Volumes   0         0         0B        0B
Build Cache     0         0         0B        0B

Configure docker-compose

Go back to the node directory and create a docker-compose.yml file there.

Then we have the following structure.

 ├── node
     ├── docker-compose.yml
     ├── funtrails
     │	   ├─ Dockerfile
     │	   ├─ .dockerignore
     │     ├─ app.js
     │     ├─ node_modules
     │	   ├─ package.json
     │	   ├─ package-lock.json
     │     ├─ views    
     │         ├── images
     │         ├── index.html
     ├── nginx
           ├── nginx.conf

docker-compose is a tool that helps you define and run multi-container Docker applications using a YAML file. Instead of running multiple docker run commands, you describe everything in one file and start it all with the command docker-compose up.

Create docker-compose.yml with the following content.

#docker-compose.yml

services:
  funtrails:
    build: ./funtrails
    container_name: funtrails 
    networks:
      - funtrails-network

  nginx:
    image: nginx:latest
    container_name: nginx-proxy
    ports:
      - "80:80"
    volumes:
      - ./nginx/nginx.conf:/etc/nginx/nginx.conf:ro
    depends_on:
      - funtrails
    networks:
      - funtrails-network

networks:
  funtrails-network:
    driver: bridge

services

This section defines containers that make up your app

• funtrails
  
  • build: ./funtrails
    Builds the image from the Dockerfile inside the ./funtrails directory.
  • container_name: funtrails
    Names the container funtrails instead of a random name.
  • networks: funtrails-network
    Connects the container to a custom user-defined network.
• nginx
• image: nginx:latest
  Uses the official latest NGINX image.
• container_name: nginx-proxy
  Container will be named nginx-proxy.
• ports: „80:80“
• Exposes Host port 80 to Container port 80.
• volumes:
  Mounts your local nginx.conf into the container, read-only (:ro).
• depends_on: funtrails
  Ensures funtrails is started before nginx.
• networks: funtrails-network
  Both services are in the same network, so they can communicate by name.

networks

• Creates a custom bridge network named funtrails-network.
• Ensures containers can resolve each other by name (funtrails, nginx).
  

Note: We are using the official NGINX image directly (image: nginx:latest). This image is prebuilt and includes everything NGINX needs to run.

We don’t need to write a custom Dockerfile because we don’t want to:

• Add extra modules
• Customize the image beyond just the config
• Install additional tools
• Include SSL certs directly, etc.

Instead, we simply mount our own nginx.conf into the container using a volume. This tells Docker Use the official NGINX image, but replace its config file with mine. We would use a Dockerfile in the nginx directory if we need to build a custom NGINX image, for example to copy SSL certs directly into the image.

Example:

FROM nginx:latest
COPY ./nginx.conf /etc/nginx/nginx.conf
COPY ./certs /etc/nginx/certs

But for most use cases like reverse proxying a nodejs app, just mounting your own config file is perfectly sufficient and simpler.

Note:We integrate SSL in the next chapter using free Lets Encrypt certificates.

Integrate SSL certificates – free Lets Encrypt

To integrate SSL we need to do the following steps:

1. Prepare your Domain
2. Install certbot
3. Create Lets Encrypt SSL certificates
4. Adapt your node/docker-compose.yml
5. Adapt your node/nginx/nginx.conf
6. Create a cron-Job to renew SSL certificates
   

prepare the domain

You must own a domain like example.com and you must have access to your DNS-servers to adapt the A-Record. Here in my example I create a subdomain funtrails.example.com and create on my DNS an A-Record for funtrails.example.com that point to the servers IP-Adress.

install certbot

To install our certificates for SSL we use a tool called certbot. We install certbot with apt on our Linux machine.

sudo apt update
sudo apt install certbot

create Lets Encrypt SSL certificates

We create the SSL certificates with certbot.

sudo certbot certonly --standalone -d funtrails.example.com

Saving debug log to /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log
Enter email address (used for urgent renewal and security notices)
 (Enter 'c' to cancel): <your-email>@funtrails.example.com

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 
Please read the Terms of Service at
https://letsencrypt.org/documents/LE-SA-v1.5-February-24-2025.pdf. You must
agree in order to register with the ACME server. Do you agree?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 
(Y)es/(N)o: Y

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Would you be willing, once your first certificate is successfully issued, to
share your email address with the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a founding
partner of the Let's Encrypt project and the non-profit organization that
develops Certbot? We'd like to send you email about our work encrypting the web,
EFF news, campaigns, and ways to support digital freedom.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Y)es/(N)o: Y
Account registered.
Requesting a certificate for funtrails.example.com

Successfully received certificate.
Certificate is saved at: /etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com/fullchain.pem

Key is saved at:         /etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com/privkey.pem

This certificate expires on 2025-07-25.

These files will be updated when the certificate renews.

Certbot has set up a scheduled task to automatically renew this certificate in the background.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 
If you like Certbot, please consider supporting our work by:
 * Donating to ISRG / Let's Encrypt:   https://letsencrypt.org/donate
 * Donating to EFF:                    https://eff.org/donate-le
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

To use SSL you need

• a server certificate (e.g. certificate.crt)
• a private key (e.g. private.key) and
• the CA certificate (e.g. ca.crt).

certbot create these file in the following directory on your Host server.

/etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com

sudo ls -l /etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com

cert.pem -> ../../archive/funtrails.example.com/cert1.pem
chain.pem -> ../../archive/funtrails.example.com/chain1.pem
fullchain.pem -> ../../archive/funtrails.example.com/fullchain1.pem
privkey.pem -> ../../archive/funtrails.example.com/privkey1.pem

The translation to the standard is as follows.

adapt node/docker-compose.yml

The docker-compose.yml will be adapted as follows.

services:
  funtrails:
    build: ./funtrails
    container_name: funtrails
    networks:
      - funtrails-network

  nginx:
    image: nginx:latest
    container_name: nginx-proxy
    ports:
      - "80:80"
      - "443:443"
    volumes:
      - ./nginx/nginx.conf:/etc/nginx/nginx.conf:ro
      - /etc/letsencrypt:/etc/letsencrypt:ro
    depends_on:
      - funtrails
    networks:
      - funtrails-network

networks:
  funtrails-network:
    driver: bridge

We create a bridge network with the name funtrails-network and both services are running in this network. This is important to reach all services by their container name(s).

The funtrails service will rebuild from the Dockerfile in ./funtrails. For the nginx service the nginx-image will be loaded from the Docker resources in the latest version. For the nginx image it is defined that the Host ports 80 and 443 will be mapped into the Container ports 80 and 443. When the Container is started we mount the Host files ./nginx/nginx.conf and the SSL certificates unter /etc/letsencrypt into the Container. Both will be loaded with read only!

...
volumes:
      - ./nginx/nginx.conf:/etc/nginx/nginx.conf:ro
      - /etc/letsencrypt:/etc/letsencrypt:ro
...

With the dependson directive we declare that first the funtrails service must be started and then nginx.

adapt node/nginx/nginx.conf

The file will be adapted as follows.

events {
  worker_connections 1024; 
}

http {

    server {
      listen 80;
      server_name funtrails.example.com;

      # Redirect HTTP -> HTTPS
      return 301 https://$host$request_uri;
    }

   server {
    listen 443 ssl;
    server_name funtrails.example.com;

    ssl_certificate /etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com/fullchain.pem;
    ssl_certificate_key /etc/letsencrypt/live/funtrails.example.com/privkey.pem;

    ssl_protocols TLSv1.2 TLSv1.3;
    ssl_ciphers HIGH:!aNULL:!MD5;

    location / {
        proxy_pass http://funtrails:8080;
        proxy_set_header Host $host;
        proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;
        proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;
        proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-Proto $scheme;
    }
  }
}

The events{} Block is a required block in NGINX configuration, even if empty. It handles connection-related events (like concurrent connections), but you don’t need to configure it unless you have advanced use cases. Here I configured 1024 concurrent connections.

Within the http block we have 2 virtual server-blocks. The first server-block define that server funtrails.example.com is listening to port 80 (HTTP) but all requests to this port will immediately be redirected to port 443 (HTTPS). The second server-block define that server funtrails.example.com is listening also to port 443 (HTTPS) followed by the location of the SSL certificate and SSL key on our local Host and the protocol definition.

The location-block define a rule for requests to / (the root URL of your site). You could add more location blocks i.e. for /api, /images, etc. if needed. In this config, we are skipping the upstream block and directly writing proxypass. The proxypass tells NGINX to forward requests to port 8080 of the backend service defined in docker-compose.yml. This backend service in docker-compose.yml is defined with the container_name directive which is set to funtrails.

...
services:
  funtrails:
	build: ./funtrails
    container_name: funtrails
	networks:
	   - funtrails-network
... 

Docker Compose creates an internal Docker network funtrails-network, and all services can reach each other by their service name(s) as hostname(s). So nginx can resolve funtrails because it’s part of the same Docker network (no need for a manual upstream block).

These other $variables come from NGINX’s core HTTP module, so we don’t need to define them. They are always available in the config.

$host

• What it is: The value of the Host header in the original HTTP request.
• Example: If the user visits http://example.com, then $host is example.com.
• Use case: Tells the backend app what domain the client used — useful for apps serving multiple domains.

$remoteaddr

• What it is: The IP address of the client making the request.
• Example: If someone from IP 203.0.113.45 visits your site, this variable is set to 203.0.113.45.
• Use case: Useful for logging, rate limiting, or geolocation in the backend app.

$proxyaddxforwardedfor

• What it is: A composite header that appends the client’s IP to the existing X-Forwarded-For header.
• Use case: Maintains a full list of proxy hops (useful if your request goes through multiple reverse proxies).
• How it works: If X-Forwarded-For is already set (by another proxy), it appends $remoteaddr to it; otherwise, it sets it to $remoteaddr.

$scheme

• What it is: The protocol used by the client to connect to NGINX — either http or https.
• Example: If the user visits https://example.com, then $scheme is https.
• Use case: Lets your backend know whether the original request was secure or not.
  

Create a cron-Job to renew Lets Encrypt SSL certificates

Lets Encrypt SSL Certificates must be renewed after 90 days. certbot can renew your certificates. To automize the renewal you can create a cronjob on your Host machine.

Note: Sometimes cron doesn’t know where docker-compose is located (because the environment variables are missing). Therefore, it’s safer to use the full paths in crontab. You check the relevant paths as follows:

which docker-compose
/usr/bin/docker-compose

which certbot
/usr/bin/certbot

The create a cronjob in crontab of the user root (use sudo):

sudo crontab -e 

0 3 * * * 	/usr/bin/certbot renew --quiet && /usr/bin/docker-compose restart nginx

With sudo crontab -e you create a crontab for the user root. All commands within the root crontab will be executed with root privileges.

certbot renew checks all certificates for expiration dates and automatically renews them.

docker-compose restart nginx ensures that nginx is reloaded so that it can apply the new certificates. Otherwise, nginx would still be using old certificates even though new ones are available. With the command you call docker-compose restart <service-name>. Here you specify the service name from docker-compose.yml not the container name.

Note: In case you would call crontab -e (without sudo) you would edit your own user crontab. This crontab then runs under your user, not as root and the tasks in crontab run unter this normal user. When you renew SSL certificates using certbot renew this job must write into the directories under /etc/letsencrypt/ on your machine. But these directories are owned by root. So you cannot write to the directories when the crontab runs under a normal user. One might then think that the commands in the crontab of a normal user should be executed with sudo. If a crontab job of your normal user (i.e. patrick) is running and sudo is used in the command, then sudo will attempt to prompt for the password. But there is no terminal in crontab where you can enter a password. Therefore, the command will fail (error in the log, nothing happens). Therefore it is essential here to edit the crontab of the user root with sudo crontab -e.

Finally you can check the crontab of your own or the crontab as root as follows.

crontab -l
no crontab for patrick

sudo crontab -l
# Edit this file to introduce tasks to be run by cron.
# 
# Each task to run has to be defined through a single line
# indicating with different fields when the task will be run
# and what command to run for the task
# 
# To define the time you can provide concrete values for
# minute (m), hour (h), day of month (dom), month (mon),
# and day of week (dow) or use '*' in these fields (for 'any').
# 
# Notice that tasks will be started based on the cron's system
# daemon's notion of time and timezones.
# 
# Output of the crontab jobs (including errors) is sent through
# email to the user the crontab file belongs to (unless redirected).
# 
# For example, you can run a backup of all your user accounts
# at 5 a.m every week with:
# 0 5 * * 1 tar -zcf /var/backups/home.tgz /home/
# 
# For more information see the manual pages of crontab(5) and cron(8)
# 
# m h  dom mon dow   command

0 3 * * * /usr/bin/certbot renew --quiet && /usr/bin/docker-compose restart nginx
 

You can check the logs for the renewal process using the following command.

sudo cat /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log

Start the Containers with docker-compose

Navigate to the directory with docker-compose.yml. Then use the following commands.

sudo docker-compose build

sudo docker-compose up -d

The command docker-compose build reads the Dockerfile for each service defined in docker-compose.yml and builds the Docker image accordingly. The command docker-compose up -d run the container(s) and the network. This starts all services defined in the docker-compose.yml and links them via the defined docker network. The -d flag runs the containers in the background (detached mode).

Then you can check the status using the following commands.

sudo docker-compose ps

sudo docker ps

Here is an overview of the most important commands.

How to manage Changes made to the application code

When we make changes to the app code i.e. in node/funtrails/app.js or in node/funtrails/Dockerfile we need to rebuild the image for the funtrails service defined in node/docker-compose.yml. In such a change scenario it is not necessary to stop the containers with docker-compose down before you rebuild the image with docker-compose build.

You can rebuild and restart only the funtrails service with the following commands.

docker-compose build funtrails

docker-compose up -d funtrails

This will:

• Rebuild the funtrails image
• Stop the old funtrails container (if running)
• Start a new container using the updated image
• Without affecting other services like nginx
  

Under no circumstances should you start attacks on systems located on the internet, even if the systems belong to you, because from a legal point of view it is always a risk and you can get into trouble. You should build a game environment in your local network in which you install attacker and victim system. It is important that you only use private IP addresses and that the game environment does not route any data traffic to and from the Internet. This gaming environment is then your Hacking Lab in which you can try out different attack scenarios safely and securely.

The idea is to install a virtualization software on the operating system of the host computer which is in my case an M2 Apple Mac with Ventura 13.3. The virtualization software I use is UTM. UTM create the virtual guest machines in a virtual Lan (Vlan) isolated from the host operating system and the local network. The virtual guest machines can talk to each other but can not access the local network or the internet via the host. The host can talk to the virtual guest machines. This network mode is defined as host only mode.

Note: UTM provide various network operating modes. Details can be read in the UTM documentation.

The installation of UTM can be done in two ways:

1. Payed version in the Apple App Store
2. Free download from the UTM site

I recommend to install the payed version from the App Store. You will get all updates whenever there are updates available and you support the development of this fantastic tool. At the time of writing this article the costs for the payed version of UTM were 11.99 Euro.

Once UTM has been installed we need to create the attacker and the victim as virtual guest machines in UTM. The attacker is a Kali Linux Image the victim will be a host prepared with vulnarabilities from vulnerable hub.

On vulnerable hub you find vulnerable virtual machines. These machines are prepared from cyber security enthusiasts for other security enthusiasts. These machines are available with vulnerabilities and created specifically for the purpose of hacking them.

Create a vulnerable virtual machine in UTM

To create a victim in UTM you search for a machine which best suits your needs and download the virtual machine from vulnerable hub which is available there in the .ova format. OVA is basically a tar based archive that contains among other things, an .ovf file with the specification of the virtual machine and in most cases disk image files in the format .vdi and .vmdk. Other files contained in the .ova file we don’t consider.

On vulnerable hub we search for Robot and find 3 search results. We look for Mr-Robot: 1, click on it and find the download link to download the .ova file for the vulnerable virtual machine.

To install Mr-Robot: 1 as virtual machine in UTM we first must unpack the .ova file.

patrick % ls
total 2884016
mrRobot.ova

patrick % tar -xvf mrRobot.ova 
x mrRobot.ovf
x mrRobot.mf
x mrRobot-disk1.vmdk

patrick % ls
total 2884016
mrRobot-disk1.vmdk mrRobot.mf mrRobot.ova mrRobot.ovf

Then we convert the disk image file mrRobot-disk1.vmdk into the .qcow2 format which is the supported format by UTM. If you need some more detailed information there is a very good explanation on Xmodulo.

To convert the disk image from into .qcow2 we need the utility qemu-img. I install the complete qemu emulator from homebrew as the qemu utilities are not available as single option. If you don’t know homebrew or in case homebrew is not installed on your Mac just go to my blog site digitaldocblog and read the article how to intstall and use homebrew on your Mac.

patrick %  brew install qemu

patrick % ls
total 2884016
mrRobot-disk1.vmdk mrRobot.mf mrRobot.ova mrRobot.ovf

patrick % qemu-img convert -O \
qcow2 mrRobot-disk1.vmdk mrRobot.qcow2

patrick % ls
total 2884016
mrRobot-disk1.vmdk mrRobot.mf mrRobot.ova mrRobot.ovf
mrRobot.qcow2

Then you start UTM from the main menue and click create new virtual machine.

Then you click on Emulate. You click on Emulate because the virtual machine you are going to install is compiled for the x86 64 Intel CPU Architechture. This Intel CPU must be emulated by UTM to provide the basis that your host can run as guest on your Apple ARM Silicon Mac (M1 and M2). In the next chapter when we install the attacker Linux we choose a virtual machine that is compiled for the Apple ARM 64 Silicon architechture. Then we click Virtualize because this guest machine is compiled for your host architecture (M1 or M2).

After Emulate you click on Custom. Then you skip ISO boot, accept in the following all default values ​​and assign a name fitting your needs for your new virtual host. At the end, the configuration is completed with safe.

In the left panel you see the virtual machine you just created. Mark it and click on the settings menue at the top right side.

In the left panel of the settings go to the Drives section and delete the IDE drive. Stay in the Drives section and create a new drive. Here you click on Import and select the .qcow2 file on your hard disk (the one you created as you converted the .vmdk file). After this step go to the QEMU section where you unselect UEFI Boot. To set the correct network settings go to Network section and select Host only. Finally you click on safe and end the configuration.

Create the attacker virtual machine in UTM

To launch attacks against a vulnerable virtual host I recommend installing a standard Kali Linux machine in UTM. Most tools are already pre-installed here and you can start immediately.

We go on the Kali.org website an there into the section get Kali. I choose installer images and then we select the ARM Silicon (ARM64) for download the Kali especially compiled for our Apple ARM Silicon M2 architecture (if you have a M1 this is also working fine). Click on the recommended installer and download the iso image to your hard drive.

After you have downloaded the iso image the installation will be performed in 2 steps. First you create a new virtual machine in virtualization mode and then in step 2 you install the Kali Linux on it.

Click on the + sign in the top menue and then select Virtualize.

After that you can select the OS you want to install. Here you click on Linux and here you select the iso image you downloaded from Kali in the Boot-Iso-Image section.

Then you click continue and keep the default value for the RAM but set the CPU cores to 4.

In the following you can keep all default values i.e. for storage and always click on continue until you come to the Summary section. Here you can give you new virtual machine a name according to your needs. Finally you click on safe.

Then click on the settings to open the settings menue. Go to the Devices section and click on new and add a new serial device emulation. This is very important for the installation of Kali Linux on your virtual machine otherwise the installer will not start.

Run the virtual machine to start the installation. Here you see that 2 windows will be opened. Choose the window that says terminal one and start the installation. Don’t choose Graphical installation. Then follow the installation steps. You can see a very good video on YouTube that guide you through the standard installation.

Once you see the finish installation screen then use the navigation bar of this window terminal 1 and shut down the virtual machine. Close the second window that has been opened when you started with the installation.

Then you go to the main window, select the virtual machine you just installed, go to the main window and unmount the iso at the bottom of the page.

Open the settings and go to the device sections and remove the serial device you created before. To set the correct network settings go to Network section and select Host only. Finally you click on safe and end the configuration.

Check the network configuration

Run both virtual machines in UTM, Robot1VulnerableHost and the Attacker machine KaliLinux. When you run Robot1VulnerableHost you see the logon screen after the machine has beefed. Of course you don’t have login credentials because you want to hack into it instead of logging in. This is different on your KaliLinux. Here you created an account during the installation.

Log into KaliLinux and open a Terminal. Check the ip address from KaliLinux. The ip address is 192.168.128.5.

Then discover the network 192.168.128.0/24 to find other hosts in the same subnet. Type the following command.

kaliLinux % netdiscover -r 192.168.128.0/24

You see 2 hosts in your subnet 192.168.128.1 which is the bridge between your local host network and your vlan and you see 192.168.128.6 which is Robot1VulnerableHost on the same subnet.

You can ping Robot1VulnerableHost but you cannot ping the host computer which is my Mac on subnet 192.168.0.0/24 with the ip address 192.168.0.38. So the bridge does not route traffic from your vlan into the local network which is what we need. The guests can talk to each other but they can not talk to the outside world.

Then I ping the virtual guests from my Mac. Here you see the host can talk to them. So the network setup of the Hacking Lab is correct.

patrick % ping 192.168.128.5
PING 192.168.128.5 (192.168.128.5): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 192.168.128.5: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.979 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.5: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.568 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.5: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.811 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.5: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.718 ms
^C

patrick % ping 192.168.128.6
PING 192.168.128.6 (192.168.128.6): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 192.168.128.6: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=2.663 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.6: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=2.298 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.6: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=2.330 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.6: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=2.310 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.128.6: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=2.318 ms
^C

patrick %

In my booking system I give users different roles in my app and depending on their role, the users have different authorizations. An admin for example is able to access more sensitive data and functionalities than a normal player or a coach. So my app must know the role of a user to assign different authorizations to the particular user.

Clients, usually browsers send requests the app. The app responds to requests and is solely responsible for ensuring that the client only has access to the data that are intended for it. This request and response game is based on the HTTP protocol. HTTP is a stateless network protocol and requests cannot be related to each other. Each request is isolated and unrelated to previous requests and the server has no chance to recognize clients and does therefore not know their role.

This problem can be solved with sessions and cookies and means that session management must be implemented in the application. The application creates a session and stores session data such as the role of a requestor in this session. The session has a unique ID and the app saves only this ID in a cookie. The cookie is transferred to the browser and stored locally there. From now on, the browser always sends this cookie with the HTTP request and thus identifies itself to the application. The application can check the role of the requestor in the stored session data and control the appropriate access.

Basic setup of the server

First we need a working Server OS. I run Linux Ubuntu in production and have written an article about the basic setup of a production Linux server on my blog site Digitaldocblog. Since I am going to store the sessions in a MongoDB, MongoDB must be installed on the Linux server. I use MongoDB Community Edition but you can also install or upgrade to the MongoDB Enterprise Server version. In the lower part of the article you find the instructions how to install and setup your MongoDB Community Edition on your Linux System. In case you want to read the original documentation go on the MongoDB site and read how to install the MongoDB Community Edition for your OS.

In my express application I use a number of external modules or dependencies that have to be installed for the application in order for the application to run. In the repository of the bookingsystemon my GitHub account you find the package.json file which contains all the necessary dependencies. In principle, it is sufficient if you put this package.json file in your application main directory and install all dependencies with npm install.

Alternatively, of course, all modules can also be installed individually with

npm install <module> --save

Session Management

I discuss in the first part different code snippets in my application main file booking.js. The goal here is that you understand how session management is basically implemented.

// booking.js

// Load express module and create app
const express = require('express');
const app = express();
// Trust the first Proxy
app.set('trust proxy', 1);
// Load HTTP response header security module
const helmet = require('helmet');
// use secure HTTP headers using helmet with every request
app.use(
  helmet({
      frameguard: {
        action: "deny",
      },
      referrerPolicy: {
        policy: "no-referrer",
    },
    })
  );
// Load envy module to manage environment variables
const envy = require('envy');
const env = envy();

// Set environment variables
const port = env.port
const host = env.host
const mongodbpath = env.mongodbpath
const sessionsecret = env.sessionsecret
const sessioncookiename = env.sessioncookiename
const sessioncookiecollection = env.sessioncookiecollection

// Load server side session and cookie module
const session = require('express-session');
// Load mongodb session storage module
const connectMdbSession = require('connect-mongodb-session');
// Create MongoDB session store object
const MongoDBStore = connectMdbSession(session)
// Create new session store in mongodb
const store = new MongoDBStore({
  uri: mongodbpath,
  collection: sessioncookiecollection
});
// Catch errors in case session store creation fails
store.on('error', function(error) {
  console.log(`error store session in session store: ${error.message}`);
});
// Use session to create session and session cookie
app.use(session({
  secret: sessionsecret,
  name: sessioncookiename,
  store: store,
  resave: false,
  saveUninitialized: false,
  // set cookie to 1 week maxAge
  cookie: {
    maxAge: 1000 * 60 * 60 * 24 * 7,
    sameSite: true
  },
}));

... //further code not taken into account at this point

I create a server application using the Express-js  Web Application Framework. Therefore I load the Express-js module with the require() function and store the express() function in the constant app. Because my app is running behind a reverse proxy server I set the app to trust the first proxy server. Then I load the helmet module to use secure response headers in my app. I configure that all browsers should deny iFrames and that my app will set no referrer in the response header.

I use the envy module in my application to manage environment variables. Therefore I load the module with require() and store the envy() function in the constant env. With envy you can define your environment variables in your .env and .env.example files. These files must be stored in the application main directory as explained in the envy documentation.

Since my booking app is a real web application running on a web server in production I can not discuss the real environment variables because of security reasons. Therefore let us see how this work and make an example .env file.

// .env

port=myport
host=myhost
mongodbpath=myexamplemongodbpath
sessionsecret=myexamplesecret
sessioncookiename=booking
sessioncookiecollection=col_sessions

These variables have different values in my .env file. In the booking.jsfile above I define the constant env for the envy function with env = envy() . Then I have access to the environment variables defined in my .env file with env.<variable>. I define constants for each variable and assign the variable from the .env file with env.<variable>. These constants can now be used as values in the code.

I load the express-session module and the connect-mongodb-session module with the require() function. The session module stored in the constant session takes over the entire control of the session and cookie management.

The connect-mongodb-session stored in the constant connectMdbSession module is basically responsible for storing the session in the database. That is why we pass session as a parameter in the code and assign the constant MongoDBstore.

const MongoDBstore = connectMdbSession(session)

With new MongoDBStore I create a new store object. Here I pass the uri of the mongodb path and the collection where sessions should be stored.

// booking.js
...

const store = new MongoDBStore({
  uri: mongodbpath,
  collection: sessioncookiecollection
});

...

The store object initialized in this way contains all necessary parameters to successfully store a session object in my MongoDB database.

After we have defined the storage of the session object, we take care of the session object itself.

With app.use(session( {... cookie: {...} })) I create a session object with various options. The session object will be created with each request and also contains a cookie object. I pass the values for cookie: {...} and then other options likesecret: sessionsecret, the session object name with name: sessioncookiename as well as the location where the session object should be stored with store: store. Furthermore the session object has the option saveUninitialized: false and resave: false .

When the saveUninitialized option is set to false the session object is not stored into the store as long as the session is un-initialized. The option resave: false enforce that a session will not be saved back to the store even if the session is initialized. So we must understand what initialized and un-initialized mean. This must be explained.

A browser send a request to the app. More precisely, the browser sends the request to a defined endpoint in the app. An endpoint defines a path within the app that reacts to HTTP requests and executes code. Depending on the HTTP method GET or POST, the endpoint expects that the requestor requires a document back (GET) or that the requestor wants to send data to the app (POST).

In the example below the browser should send a GET request to GET home endpoint. The endpoint render the HTML template index and send the HTML back to the browser. Then the request is finished. So this process, which starts with the request and ends with the response is the runtime of the request.

In the code snippet below you see 2 GET endpoints in the booking.js file one for the home route and another one for the register route.

// booking.js

... //further code not taken into account at this point

// GET home route only for anonym users. Authenticated users redirected to dashboard
app.get('/', redirectDashboard, (req, res) => {
	
  console.log(req.url);
  console.log(req.session.id);
  console.log(req.session);

  res.render('index', {
      title: 'User Login Page',
    });

});

// GET register route only for anonym users. Authenticated users redirected to dashboard
app.get('/register', redirectDashboard, (req, res) => {
  
  console.log(req.url);
  console.log(req.session.id);
  console.log(req.session);

  res.render('register', {
      title: 'User Registration Page',
    });
});

... //further code not taken into account at this point

The code with app.use (session({ ... })) in my booking.js file ensures that a session object is always generated with each request. As long as a session object is not changed during the runtime of a request a separate session is created for each request and has its own session ID. The option saveUninitialized: false ensure that the session object will not be stored into the database. Each session object created in this way is un-initialized.

You can see the following output on the console for the home route and for the register route when we log the path, the session-ID and the session object on the console for each route.

/
BmbE8RVoTRcPP9nUnBm5JLE1w1mQiNyt
Session {
  cookie: {
    path: '/',
    _expires: 2021-04-24T04:27:04.265Z,
    originalMaxAge: 604800000,
    httpOnly: true,
    sameSite: true
  }
}

/register
awlPO-KpyVM51Gp6UAoeXGGmRWo-QFtP
Session {
  cookie: {
    path: '/',
    _expires: 2021-04-24T05:54:57.439Z,
    originalMaxAge: 604800000,
    httpOnly: true,
    sameSite: true
  }
}
  

The code of my app changes a session object during the runtime of a request by adding a data object when a user has successfully logged in. I will explain the code in detail in the next chapter but at the moment it is enough to know that. Therefore we play through the login of a user as follows.

The browser send a GET request to the home route as explained above, then the index template is rendered and the HTML page with the login form is sent back to the browser. During the runtime of this GET request a session object is created but the session object has not changed. We have already seen this above.

Then the user enters email and password in the login form and click submit. With this submit the browser send a POST request to the POST endpoint /loginusers and again a session object is generated for this POST request. During the runtime of the POST request, the code checks whether the transferred credentials are correct. If the credentials are correct, a data object with user data is generated and attached to the session object. Here the session object is changed during the runtime of the POST request. The existing session created with the POST request is now initialized at that moment. Because of the option saveUninitialized: false this session object is stored into the database store. When we look into the database store using the tool MongoDB Compass we see that the entire session object has been saved into the colsessions collection including the data object containing the required data of the user.

After the session initialization the code called by the POST endpoint redirect the request and send a new GET request to the /dashboard route. The code with app.use(session({ ... })) is called again but now there is an initialized session existing in the store. Because of the option resave: false the existing session object will not be updated and dragged along unchanged with every further request.

You see this in the output on the console when we log the path, the session-ID and the session object on the console for each route. The first output on the console is created when the GET request is sent to the home route. Then, the second output, after the user clicked submit the POST route /loginusers is called and a new session object is created. You see this from the different session IDs. During the runtime of this POST request the data object is added to the session object which initializes the session. Then, the third output, the GET route /dashboard is called and we see the same session object ID but the session object now contain the data object with the user data.

/
TEAZITdX7nLWBDc8uOk2HhXIiMZO7W-4
Session {
  cookie: {
    path: '/',
    _expires: 2021-05-02T07:21:13.236Z,
    originalMaxAge: 604800000,
    httpOnly: true,
    sameSite: true
  }
}

/loginusers
gVlKut3bdEMiDHnK455FGjCi6YbPTBuZ
Session {
  cookie: {
    path: '/',
    _expires: 2021-05-02T07:21:35.202Z,
    originalMaxAge: 604800000,
    httpOnly: true,
    sameSite: true
  }
}

/dashboard
gVlKut3bdEMiDHnK455FGjCi6YbPTBuZ
Session {
  cookie: {
    path: '/',
    _expires: 2021-05-02T07:21:35.468Z,
    originalMaxAge: 604800000,
    httpOnly: true,
    secure: null,
    domain: null,
    sameSite: true
  },
  data: {
    userId: 5f716b7439777365c18639f1,
    status: 'active',
    name: 'Oskar David',
    lastname: 'Rottländer',
    email: 'oskar@test.com',
    role: 'player',
    age: 17,
    cat: 'youth'
  }
}

In summary, session management works as follows: A session object will be created with each request and the session object is only saved in the database when the user is logged in (saveUninitialized: false). As long as the user is logged in, the session object is not changed and the data of the session object in the database are not updated (resave: false).

But what happens to the cookie ? This will be explained in the next chapter.

User login

When the session has been initialized the cookie containing the session ID is stored in the browser of the requestor. With every request the browser provide the cookie to authenticate the requestor. To authenticate the requestor the code app.use(session({...})) is called and compare the session ID sent by the browser with the session IDs stored in the session store. If a session ID matches, the session object including the data object is attached to the request object to give the app access to the data object. Within the app we now have access to any attribute of the data object with req.session.data.<attribute>. Therefore we can now implement role based authorization by accessing the role of the requestor with req.session.data.role and use this information in conditions in the code to control access depending on the role of the requestor.

But lets start from the beginning with the login of the requestor or user as I call the requestor from now on. In order for a user to be able to login, he or she must first call the login page which can be displayed by calling up the home endpoint.

// booking.js

... // Code not discussed here

// Redirect GET requests from authenticated users to dashboard
const redirectDashboard = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    res.redirect('/dashboard')

  } else {
    next()

  }
}

... // Code not discussed here

// GET home route only for anonym users. Authenticated users redirected to dashboard

app.get('/', redirectDashboard, (req, res) => {

  res.render('index', {
      title: 'User Login Page',
    });

});

... // Code not discussed here

As you see above in the code I have first defined the middleware function redirectDashboard. This middleware ensure that only users who are not logged in see the login page. If we look at the code of the middleware function we can see that req.session.data is used in an if-condition to check whether a data object is attached to the current session object. In case the if-condition is true, the user is logged in and the request is redirected to the dashboard, but in case the if-condition is false, the user is not logged in and the next() function is called.

The GET endpoint has the routingPath to the home route. When a user visits the homepage of my booking application, the GET HTTP request ask for the home routingPath. The middleware function redirectDashboard is put in front of the routingHandler function. If the user is not logged in the routingHandler function render the HTML template index.pugand send the HTML back to the user or more precisely to the user’s browser.

So far so good. We now imagine a not logged in user who sees the index page in front of him or her now wants to login using his or her email and password.

As described above, the index page is nothing more than a login form for entering an email address and a password. When we look at the index.pug file we see that the form action attribute define that the form data email and password will be sent to the form handler /loginusers using the POST method when the Submit button is clicked.

...

form#loginForm.col.s12(
		method='post', 
		action='/loginusers'
		)

		input.validate(
			type='email', 
			name='email', 
			autocomplete='username' 
			required
			)
		...

		input.validate(
			type='password', 
			name='password', 
			autocomplete='current-password' 
			required
			)
		...

button.btn.waves-effect.waves-light(
		type='submit', 
		form='loginForm'
		)
...

Note: To understand the autocomplete attributes of the input tags I recommend reading the documentation of the Chromium Project. Most browsers have password management functionalities and automatically fill in the credentials after you provide a master password to unlock your local password store. By using these autocomplete attributes in login forms but also in user registration forms or change password forms you help browsers by using these autocomplete functions to better identify these forms.

When the user has entered his or her email and password in the HTML form and clicked the Submit button, the request body contain the Form Data attributes email and password. Then a POST HTTP request is sent via HTTPS to the POST endpoint /loginusers defined in my booking.js file (see above).

In the picture below you can see the output of the network analysis in the developer tool of the chrome browser. Here you can see that the Form Data are not encrypted on browser side but you also see that the POST request URL /loginusers is HTTPS. This mean that when the browser sent the POST request to the server these data are encrypted with SSL/TLS in transit from the browser to the server.

On the server side we have the web application behind a proxy server listening to HTTP requests addressed to the POST endpoint /loginusers. This POST endpoint is an anonym POST Route which means that the routingHandler controller function is restricted to not logged-in users only. This makes sense because a login function must not be used by already logged in users. So already logged in users can not send data to this POST endpoint. This check is controlled by the middleware function verifyAnonym which is put in front of the routingHandler.

So lets look at the relevant code snippets in booking.js.

// booking.js

...

// Load db controllers and db models
const userController = require('./database/controllers/userC');

...

// Verify POST requests only for anonym users
const verifyAnonym = (req, res, next) => {

  if (req.session.data) {
    var message = 'You are not authorized to perform this request because you are already logged-in !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

  } else {
    next()

  }
}

...

// Anonym POST Route
// Login user available for anonym only
app.post('/loginusers', verifyAnonym, userController.loginUser)

...

// GET bad request route render 400badRequest
app.get('/400badRequest', (req, res) => {
 
  res.status(400).render('400badRequest', {
    title: 'Bad Request',
    code: 400,
    status: 'Bad Request',
    message: req.query.message,
  })
})

...

At the beginning of the code I refer the constant userController to the user controller file userC.js using the require method. In userC.js all user functions are defined to control user related operations.

Note: When you look into the userC.js file you see that we export modules using module.exports = {...}. Using this directive we export in fact an object with various attributes and the values of these attributes are functions. So with module.exports = { loginUser: function(...) ...} we export the object including the attribute loginUser which contains a function as value. So when we refer the constant userController using the require() function in the booking.js file we store the complete exported object with all its attributes to the userController constant. Now we have access to any attribute of the exported object from userC.js file with userController.<attribute>. Because the attributes are in fact functions we call these functions with this statement.

In the verifyAnonym function req.session.data is used in the if-condition to check whether a data object is attached to the current session object. In case the if-condition is true, the user is already logged-in and is redirected to the Bad Request GET endpoint /400badRequest which is the standard route in my application to show the user that something went wrong. The user can see what went wrong from a message that has been attached to the request using the request parameter ?message=+message. In case the if-condition is false, the user is not logged-in and the next() function forwards the request to the routingHandler controller function that call the loginUser function using userController.loginUser. This function has access to the attributes email and password of the request body with req.body.email and req.body.password.

So lets look at the relevant code snippets in userC.js file.

// database/controllers/userC.js

// load the bcryptjs module
const bcrypt = require('bcryptjs');
// define hash saltrounds for password hashing
const saltRounds = 10;
// load the relevant Prototype Objects (exported from the models)
...

const User = require('../models/userM');

...

loginUser: function (req, res) {

    const inputemail = req.body.email
    const email = inputemail.toLowerCase()

    console.log(req.url);
    console.log(req.session.id);
    console.log(req.session);

    try {

      User.findOne({ email: email }, async function(error, user) {
        if (!user) {
          var message = 'User not found. Login not possible';
          res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

        } else {
          if (user._status !== 'active') {
            var message = 'Login not possible. Await User to be activated';
            res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

          } else {
              if (bcrypt.compareSync(req.body.password, user.password)) {

                var yearInMs = 3.15576e+10;
                var currentDate = new Date ()
                var currentDateMs = currentDate.getTime()
                var birthDateMs = user.birthdate.getTime()
                var age = Math.floor((currentDateMs - birthDateMs) / yearInMs)

                if (age < 18) {
                  var cat = 'youth'
                } else {
                  var cat = 'adult'
                };

                var userData = {
                  userId: user._id,
                  status: user._status,
                  name: user.name,
                  lastname: user.lastname,
                  email: user.email,
                  role: user.role,
                  age: age,
                  cat: cat,
                }

                req.session.data = userData

                res.status(200).redirect('/dashboard')

              } else {
                var message = 'Login not possible. Wrong User password';
                res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
              }
          }
        }
      })

    } catch (error) {
      // if user query fail call default error function
      next(error)

    }
  // End Module
  },

...

In order to authenticate a user, the loginUser function must find a user in the user database with the same email address as the one that was sent by the browser and attached to the request body by the app. If a user was found with the email, the function must check whether the transmitted password matches the password that is stored in the database for this user. If the email and password match the user is authenticated and the login is successful, if not, the login fails.

Passwords are never saved in plain text. Therefore I use the bcryptjs module to hash passwords. The bcryptjs module is loaded into the code with the require() function and assigned to the constant bcrypt. We set the constant saltRounds to the value of 10. This is the so called cost factor in the bcrypt hashing function and controls how much time bcrypt need to calculate a single bcrypt hash. Increasing the cost factor by 1 doubles the time and the more time bycrypt need to hash the more difficult it is to brute force stored passwords.

Then I load the user model from userM.js using the require() function and assign the constant User. Here at this point I have to explain the background. To do this, we also need a look at the userM.js file.

Note: I use MongoDB as the database and Mongoose to model the data. If you look in the file userM.js you see that a user object is created with the function new Schema() and saved in the variable userSchema. This userSchema object describes a user with all its attributes. At the end of the file, the mongoose.model() function is used to reference the userSchema to the collection colusers in my MongoDB. This reference is assigned to the variable User and exported using the function module.exports(). With User I have access to the user model meaning to all user objects and attributes in my database that are stored in the colusers collection. So that I can use this access in the code of my userC.js file I load userM.js with the require() function and assign the constant User. I can now use Mongoose functions for example to query user data from my colusers collection. This is exactly what we do with User.findOne() when we try to find a user with a certain email.

The actual user authentication now takes place in the userFindOne() function.

When we run User.findOne() we check the criteria that do not lead to a successful authentication.

1. No user found: We are looking for a user object that matches the email that has been submitted. If no user object is found with that email or the user found is not active, the request is redirected to the 400badRequest route. If we have found an active user, the submitted password string is hashed with bcrypt and compared with the saved password.
2. Wrong password: If the password comparison is not successful, the submitted password was wrong and the request is also redirected to the 400badRequest route.
   

Note: User.findOne() has a query object {email: email} and a callback function async function(error, user {...}) as parameters. When the async function find a user with the email in the database, this async function returns a user object with all the user attributes and store this object into the user parameter. Within the scope of the async function I have now access to the user attributes using user.<attribute>.

Only in case the user with the email is found and the submitted password is correct the authentication is successful.

If the user is successfully authenticated, the category of the user is calculated based on the current date and the user’s birth date. Then a userData object is created in which various user attributes are stored. The data of the userData object are then attached to the session. More precisely, the object data is attached to the session with req.session.data and the value userData is assigned. Now the session is initialized and the session object is stored in the colsessions collection of the MongoDB.

Then the response is sent back to the browser.

In this response, the browser is instructed to call up a GET request to the GET endpoint /dashboard. The response is sent using res.status(200).redirect('/dashboard'). In the Response Header you see that the cookie with the name booking is set in the users browser using the set-cookie directive. The cookie only contain the session ID which has been signed and encrypted with the secret we provided in app.use(session( {... cookie: {...} })).

Then the browser send the GET request to the endpoint /dashboard. Lets have a look into the booking.js file again.

// booking.js 

...

// Redirect GET requests from not authenticated users to login
const redirectLogin = (req, res, next) => {
  if (!req.session.data) {
    res.redirect('/')

  } else {
    next()

  }
}

...

// GET dashboard route only for authenticated users. Anonym users redirected to home
app.get('/dashboard', redirectLogin, async (req, res) => {

  // Check admin authorization and render admin_dashboard
  if (req.session.data.role == 'admin') {

    const user_query = User.find( {} ).sort({lastname: 1, name: 1});
    var users = await user_query.exec();

    const training_query = Training.find( {} ).sort({date: 'desc'});
    var trainings = await training_query.exec();

    const location_query = Location.find( {} ).sort({location: 'desc'});
    var locations = await location_query.exec();

    const booking_query = Booking.find( {} ).sort({_booktrainingdate: 'desc'});
    var bookings = await booking_query.exec();

    const invoice_query = Invoice.find( {} ).sort({invoicedate: 'desc'});
    var invoices = await invoice_query.exec();

    res.status(200).render('admin_dashboard', {
      title: 'Admin Dashboard Page',
      name: req.session.data.name,
      lastname: req.session.data.lastname,
      role: req.session.data.role,
      data_users: users,
      data_trainings: trainings,
      data_locations: locations,
      data_bookings: bookings,
      data_invoices: invoices,

      });

  // Check player authorization and render player_dashboard
  } else if (req.session.data.role == 'player') {

    var currentDate = new Date();
    console.log('current date: ' +currentDate);

    const availabletraining_query = Training.find( { _status: 'active', date: { $gte: currentDate } } ).sort({ date: 'desc' });
    var availabletrainings = await availabletraining_query.exec();

    const booking_query = Booking.find( { _bookuseremail: req.session.data.email, _bookparticipation: { $ne: 'invoice' } } ).sort({ _booktrainingdate: 'desc' });
    var bookings = await booking_query.exec();

    const myuser_query = User.findOne( { email: req.session.data.email } );
    var myuser = await myuser_query.exec();

    const invoice_query = Invoice.find( {invoiceemail: req.session.data.email} ).sort({invoicedate: 'desc'});
    var invoices = await invoice_query .exec();

    res.status(200).render('player_dashboard', {
      title: 'Player Dashboard Page',
      name: req.session.data.name,
      lastname: req.session.data.lastname,
      role: req.session.data.role,
      email: req.session.data.email,
      data_availabletrainings: availabletrainings,
      data_bookings: bookings,
      data_myuser: myuser,
      data_myinvoices: invoices,
      });

  // Check coach authorization and render coach_dashboard
  } else if (req.session.data.role == 'coach') {
   
    var currentDate = new Date().setHours(00, 00, 00);
    console.log('currentDate: ' +currentDate);

    const training_query = Training.find( { _status: 'active', date: { $gte: currentDate } } ).sort({ date: 'asc' });
    var trainings = await training_query.exec();

    res.status(200).render('coach_dashboard', {
      title: 'Coach Dashboard Page',
      name: req.session.data.name,
      lastname: req.session.data.lastname,
      role: req.session.data.role,
      data_trainings: trainings,
      });

  } else {
    // if user not authorized as admin, player or coach end request and send response
    var message = 'You are not authorized. Access prohibited';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
  }

});

...

As you see above in the code we have first defined the middleware function redirectLogin. This middleware ensure that only users who are logged in see the dashboard page. In case the if-condition is true, the user is not logged in and the request is redirected to the home route, but in case the if-condition is false, the user is logged in and the next() function is called.

The GET HTTP request ask for the dashboard routingPath. The middleware function  redirectLogin is put in front of the routingHandler function. If the user is not logged in the  redirectLogin middleware redirect the request to the home route. In case the user is logged-in the routingHandler function is called using the request object and the response object as parameters.

app.get('/dashboard', redirectLogin, async (req, res) => {...})

If we look at the Request Header of this new GET request in the browser we can see that the cookie is dragged along unchanged with the GET request to the endpoint /dashboard. This happens from now on with every request until the session expires or until the user logout.

And now within the routingHandler function we do the user authorization check. The if condition check the users role using req.session.data.role. Depending on the role of the user different <role>dashboard HTML templates are rendered and for each role different HTML is sent back to the user’s browser. Various queries are executed beforehand because we need role specific data within each <role>dashboard HTML template. The return values ​​of the different queries find() and findOne() are only executed in case one of the if conditions become true. Then in each case the return values of the queries are stored in variables. In case all if conditions are false, meaning we cannot find a user with a role like admin, player or coach in the database for some reason the request is redirected to the Bad Request GET endpoint /400badRequest using the message as request parameter that this user is not authorized.

Within each if condition and for each role admin, player or coach, we create the response object by first setting the HTTP status to the value of 200 and then using the render method to render the respective HTML template.

res.status(200).render('<role>_dashboard', {...})

Within the render method, we now have the option of transferring a data object with different attributes to the HTML template. Later we can access these data in the respective HTML template and use it within the HTML template. How this works is not part of this article. But of course you can take a closer look at the templates admin dashboard, player dashboardand coach dashboardon my GitHub repository and you will immediately see how this works.

Create Authorizations

As I have already shown in the upper part, I work with middleware functions to control access to GET and POST endpoints in my app. Therefore these middleware functions are the Authorizations and you can find them in the code of my booking.js file.

// booking.js

...

// Authorizations
// Redirect GET requests from not authenticated users to login
const redirectLogin = (req, res, next) => {
  if (!req.session.data) {
    res.redirect('/')

  } else {
    next()

  }
}

// Redirect GET requests from authenticated users to dashboard
const redirectDashboard = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    res.redirect('/dashboard')

  } else {
    next()

  }
}

// Authorize POST requests only for not authenticated users
const verifyAnonym = (req, res, next) => {
  if (!req.session.data) {
    next()

  } else {
    var message = 'You are already logged-in. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

  }
}

// Authorize POST requests only for anonym and admin users
const verifyAnonymAndAdmin = (req, res, next) => {
  if (!req.session.data) {
    next()

  } else {

    if (req.session.data.role == 'admin') {
      next()

    } else {
      var message = 'You are no Admin. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
      res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

    }

  }
}

// Authorize POST requests only for admin and player users
const verifyAdminAndPlayer = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    if (req.session.data.role == 'admin') {
      next()

    } else if (req.session.data.role == 'player') {
      next()

    } else {
      var message = 'You are no Admin, no Player. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
      res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
    }

  } else {
    var message = 'You are not logged-in. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
  }

}

// Authorize POST requests only for admin users
const verifyAdmin = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    if (req.session.data.role == 'admin') {
      next()

    } else {
      var message = 'You are no Admin. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
      res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
    }

  } else {
    var message = 'You are not logged-in. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

  }
}

// Authorize POST requests only for player users
const verifyPlayer = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    if (req.session.data.role == 'player') {
      next()

    } else {
      var message = 'You are no Player. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
      res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);
    }

  } else {
    var message = 'You are not logged-in. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

  }
}

// Authorize POST requests only for coach users
const verifyCoach = (req, res, next) => {
  if (req.session.data) {
    if (req.session.data.role == 'coach') {
      next()

    } else {
      var message = 'You are no Coach. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
      res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

    }

  } else {
    var message = 'You are not logged-in. You are not authorized to perform this request !';
    res.status(400).redirect('/400badRequest?message='+message);

  }
}

...

As I have already explained above I use redirect functions as a middleware to control access to the GET endpoints home, register and dashboard. These middleware functions basically control access based on whether a user is logged-in or not. The redirect function redirectDashboard allow only not logged-in users access to the home endpoint and to the register endpoint, while users who are already logged-in have no access and would be redirected directly to the dashboard route if they try to access here. The redirectLogin middleware function allow only logged-in users access to the dashboard route while not logged-in users are redirected to the login or better to the home endpoint.

In addition to redirect functions I use verify functions as a middleware to control access to the POST endpoints. With the help of POST requests, data are sent via POST endpoints to the app. That is why it is particularly important to control who is allowed to send data and who is not. I use basically 5 types of POST endpoints.

Anonym POST endpoint. I only have one endpoint here. The loginusers endpoint can only be called by not logged-in users. Therefore the verifyAnonym  middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is not logged-in.

// booking.js
...

// Anonym POST endpoint
// Login user available for anonym only
app.post('/loginusers', verifyAnonym, userController.loginUser)

...

Shared POST endpoints. The createusers endpoint can be called by not logged-in users and Admin users. The  verifyAnonymAndAdmin  middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is not logged-in or if the user that is logged-in has the role admin. The  updateuseremail and setnewuserpassword endpoints can be called only by Admin and Player users. Therefore the  verifyAdminAndPlayer  middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is logged-in and if the users role is admin or player.

// booking.js
...

// Shared POST endpoints
// Create Users available for anonym and admin
app.post('/createusers', verifyAnonymAndAdmin, birthdateFormatValidation, userController.createUser)

// Update User-Email available for admin and player
app.post('/updateuseremail', verifyAdminAndPlayer, userController.updateUserEmail)

// Update User-Password available for admin and player
app.post('/setnewuserpassword', verifyAdminAndPlayer, userController.setNewUserPassword)

...

Admin POST endpoints. I have 19 endpoints here and each of these endpoint can only be called by Admin users. The  verifyAdmin middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is logged-in and if the users role is admin.

// booking.js
...

// Admin POST endpoints
// Admin User Management
app.post('/callupdateusers', verifyAdmin, userController.callUpdateUsers)

app.post('/updateuser', verifyAdmin, birthdateFormatValidation, userController.updateUser)

app.post('/terminateusers', verifyAdmin, userController.terminateUser)

app.post('/activateusers', verifyAdmin, userController.activateUser)

app.post('/removeusers', verifyAdmin, userController.removeUser)

// Admin Update Training
app.post('/callupdatetrainings', verifyAdmin, trainingController.callUpdateTrainings)

app.post('/updatetraining', verifyAdmin, trainingController.updateTraining)

// Admin Location Management
app.post('/createlocations', verifyAdmin, locationController.createLocation)

app.post('/callupdatelocations', verifyAdmin, locationController.callUpdateLocations)

app.post('/updatelocation', verifyAdmin, locationController.updateLocation)

app.post('/callcreatetrainings', verifyAdmin, trainingController.callCreateTrainings)

app.post('/createtraining', verifyAdmin, trainingController.createTraining)

// Admin Invoice Management
app.post('/createinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.createInvoiceUser)

app.post('/callcancelinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.callCancelInvoice)

app.post('/cancelinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.cancelInvoice)

app.post('/callpayinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.callPayInvoice)

app.post('/payinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.payInvoice)

app.post('/callrepayinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.callRePayInvoice)

app.post('/repayinvoice', verifyAdmin, invoiceController.rePayInvoice)

...

Player POST endpoints. I have 7 endpoints here and each of these endpoint can only be called by Player users. The  verifyPlayer middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is logged-in and if the users role is player.

// booking.js
...

// Player POST endpoints
// Player Booking Management
app.post('/callbooktrainings', verifyPlayer, bookingController.callBookTrainings)

app.post('/booktrainings', verifyPlayer, bookingController.bookTraining)

app.post('/bookingreactivate', verifyPlayer, bookingController.bookingReactivate)

app.post('/callcancelbookings', verifyPlayer, bookingController.callCancelBooking)

app.post('/cancelbookings', verifyPlayer, bookingController.cancelBooking)

// Player User Management
app.post('/callupdatemyuserdata', verifyPlayer, userController.callUpdateMyUserData)

app.post('/updatemyuserdata', verifyPlayer, birthdateFormatValidation, userController.updateMyUserData)

...

Coach POST endpoints. I have 2 endpoints here and each of these endpoint can only be called by Coach users. The  verifyCoach middleware is set before the routingHandler function to verify if the user is logged-in and if the users role is coach.

// booking.js
...

// Coach POST endpoints
// Coach Confirmation Management
app.post('/callparticipants', verifyCoach, bookingController.callParticipants)

app.post('/callconfirmpatricipants', verifyCoach, bookingController.callConfirmPatricipants)

...

User logout

The user initiates a logout himself by clicking on the logout link in the navigation of the application. This sends a GET request to the /logout endpoint of the application. In this routing definition, the session is first deleted from the database using req.session.destroy() and then the cookie is removed from the browser and the user is redirected to the 200success site using res.status(200).clearCookie('booking').redirect().

// booking.js

...

// GET logout route only for authenticated users. Anonym users redirected to home
app.get('/logout', redirectLogin, (req, res) => {
  req.session.destroy(function(err) {
    if (err) {
      res.send('An err occured: ' +err.message);
    } else {
      var message = 'You have been successfully logged out';
      res.status(200).clearCookie('booking').redirect('/200success?message='+message)
    }
  });
})

...

SSH public key authentication for the root user

First we create the ssh keys on the local machine.

PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096 -C "your_email@domain.com"
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/patrick/.ssh/id_rsa):
Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase):
PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ ls -l .ssh/id_*
-rw-------@ 1 patrick  staff  3434  4 Feb 14:58 .ssh/id_rsa
-rw-r--r--  1 patrick  staff   750  4 Feb 14:58 .ssh/id_rsa.pub
PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ 

We log in to the server with the root user via ssh and are in the root user’s home directory and create the .ssh directory and the authorized_keys file. The we log out from the server and install the public key from the local machine on the server.

PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ ssh root@85.134.111.90
root@85.134.111.90's password: 
Welcome to Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS (GNU/Linux 4.15.0 x86_64)

 * Documentation:  https://help.ubuntu.com
 * Management:     https://landscape.canonical.com
 * Support:        https://ubuntu.com/advantage
Last login: Fri Feb 19 07:10:43 2021 from 112.11.237.18
root@h2866085:~# ls -al
insgesamt 28
drwx------  3 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:10 .
drwxr-xr-x 23 root root 4096 Feb 19 06:41 ..
-rw-------  1 root root   12 Feb 19 07:10 .bash_history
-rw-r--r--  1 root root 3106 Aug 14  2019 .bashrc
drwx------  2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:09 .cache
-rw-r--r--  1 root root  148 Aug 13  2020 .profile
-rw-r--r--  1 root root   20 Feb 19 06:37 .screenrc
root@h2866085:~# mkdir .ssh
root@h2866085:~# ls -al
insgesamt 32
drwx------  4 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 .
drwxr-xr-x 23 root root 4096 Feb 19 06:41 ..
-rw-------  1 root root   12 Feb 19 07:10 .bash_history
-rw-r--r--  1 root root 3106 Aug 14  2019 .bashrc
drwx------  2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:09 .cache
-rw-r--r--  1 root root  148 Aug 13  2020 .profile
-rw-r--r--  1 root root   20 Feb 19 06:37 .screenrc
drwxr-xr-x  2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 .ssh
root@h2866085:~# chmod 700 .ssh
root@h2866085:~# ls -al
insgesamt 32
drwx------  4 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 .
drwxr-xr-x 23 root root 4096 Feb 19 06:41 ..
-rw-------  1 root root   12 Feb 19 07:10 .bash_history
-rw-r--r--  1 root root 3106 Aug 14  2019 .bashrc
drwx------  2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:09 .cache
-rw-r--r--  1 root root  148 Aug 13  2020 .profile
-rw-r--r--  1 root root   20 Feb 19 06:37 .screenrc
drwx------  2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 .ssh
root@h2866085:~# cd .ssh
root@h2866085:~/.ssh# touch authorized_keys
root@h2866085:~/.ssh# ls -al
insgesamt 8
drwx------ 2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:21 .
drwx------ 4 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 ..
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root    0 Feb 19 07:21 authorized_keys
root@h2866085:~/.ssh# chmod 600 authorized_keys
root@h2866085:~/.ssh# ls -al
insgesamt 8
drwx------ 2 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:21 .
drwx------ 4 root root 4096 Feb 19 07:20 ..
-rw------- 1 root root    0 Feb 19 07:21 authorized_keys
root@h2866085:~/.ssh# exit
Abgemeldet
Connection to 85.214.161.41 closed.

PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$
PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ cat ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub | ssh root@85.214.161.41 "cat >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys"
PatrickMBNeu:~ patrick$ ssh root@85.134.111.90
root@85.214.161.41's password: 
Welcome to Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS (GNU/Linux 4.15.0 x86_64)

 * Documentation:  https://help.ubuntu.com
 * Management:     https://landscape.canonical.com
 * Support:        https://ubuntu.com/advantage
Last login: Fri Feb 19 07:18:57 2021 from 185.17.207.18

root@h2866085:~# cat .ssh/authorized_keys
ssh-rsa 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 p.rottlaender@icloud.com
root@h2866085:~# 

Ubuntu Version check

Another action we take is to check which OS version and kernel version we are dealing with. This provides important information when we install software later. Often we have to download special software releases for the Linux version used. Type any of the following commands to find OS Name and OS Version running on your Linux server.

root@h2866085:~$ cat /etc/os-release

NAME="Ubuntu"
VERSION="18.04.5 LTS (Bionic Beaver)"
ID=ubuntu
ID_LIKE=debian
PRETTY_NAME="Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS"
VERSION_ID="18.04"
HOME_URL="https://www.ubuntu.com/"
SUPPORT_URL="https://help.ubuntu.com/"
BUG_REPORT_URL="https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/"
PRIVACY_POLICY_URL="https://www.ubuntu.com/legal/terms-and-policies/privacy-policy"
VERSION_CODENAME=bionic
UBUNTU_CODENAME=bionic

root@h2866085:~$ lsb_release -a

No LSB modules are available.
Distributor ID:    Ubuntu
Description:    Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS
Release:    18.04
Codename:    bionic

root@h2866085:~$

To print the Linux kernel version running on your server type the following command. I am running Linux kernel version 4.15.

root@h2866085:~$ uname -r
4.15.0
root@h2866085:~$

Create a user

Of course, we don’t want to log in to the system with the root user all the time. It is therefore advisable to create another user with whom we can then log in and work.

A user can be created in Ubuntu Linux with the command useradd or adduser. I use the adduser command because with this perl script, in addition to creating the user in /etc/passwd and creating a dedicated user group in /etc/group, the home directory in /home is also created for that user and default files are copied from /etc/skel if necessary.

As root run the command adduser mynewuser.

root@h2866085:~$ adduser mynewuser

Benutzer »mynewuser« wird hinzugefügt …
Neue Gruppe »mynewuser« (1001) wird hinzugefügt …
Neuer Benutzer »mynewuser« (1001) mit Gruppe »mynewuser« wird hinzugefügt …
Persönliche Ordner »/home/mynewuser« wird erstellt …
Dateien werden von »/etc/skel« kopiert …
Geben Sie ein neues UNIX-Passwort ein: 
Geben Sie das neue UNIX-Passwort erneut ein: 
passwd: password updated successfully
Changing the user information for mynewuser
Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default
    Full Name []: Tech User
    Room Number []: 
    Work Phone []: 
    Home Phone []: 
    Other []: This user is only for tech 
Ist diese Information richtig? [J/N] J

root@h2866085:~$

This create the user mynewuser. In /etc/passwd you see that the user has been created with userID (1000) and a groupID (1000). In /etc/group you find the new group mynewuser. When you check the home directory you find the new home directory in /home/mynewuser.

root@h2866085:~$ grep mynewuser /etc/passwd
mynewuser:x:1000:1000::/home/mynewuser:/bin/bash
root@h2866085:~$ cat /etc/group
....
....
mynewuser:x:1000:
...
root@h2866085:~$ ls -l /home
drwxr-xr-x 2 mynewuser mynewuser 4096 Jan 23 05:31 mynewuser
root@h2866085:~$

The last entry in the /etc/passwd specifies the shell of the new user. Here the newly created user has the Bash shell. In general a Unix shell is a command processor running in a command line window. The user types commands and these commands will be executed and cause actions. For more details you can read the wiki article about Unix Shells.

Because there are some different shells available there might be the need to change the user’s shell which basically mean that you change the variety of available commands on your command line. To change the shell of a user type usermod --shell </path/toShell> <mynewuser>. To see which shells you can use pls. check the /etc/shells directory.

root@h2866085:~$ ls -l /etc/shells
# /etc/shells: valid login shells
/bin/sh
/bin/dash
/bin/bash
/bin/rbash
/usr/bin/screen
/bin/tcsh
/usr/bin/tcsh
root@h2866085:~$ usermod --shell /bin/sh mynewuser
root@h2866085:~$ grep mynewuser /etc/passwd
mynewuser:x:1001:1001:Tech User,,,,This user is only for tech:/home/mynewuser:/bin/sh

Sudo configuration

This newly created user can create files in his home directory and access those files. However, it cannot copy files to directories owned by root. To demonstrate this, I log in to the system with the newly generated user. I create a file in the home directory and then I try to copy this file into a directory owned by root. The error message is that I am not authorized. To do this copy you must be root.

A user can still execute commands as root. That’s why there is sudo. So when I try to execute the command with sudo I get the message that the user is not in the sudoers-file.

Patricks-MacBook-Pro:~$ ssh mynewuser@85.214.161.41
Welcome to Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS (GNU/Linux 4.15.0 x86_64)

 * Documentation:  https://help.ubuntu.com
 * Management:     https://landscape.canonical.com
 * Support:        https://ubuntu.com/advantage
Last login: Fri Feb  5 08:57:52 2021 from 87.161.105.46
mynewuser@h2866085:~$  touch testfile
mynewuser@h2866085:~$ ls -l
insgesamt 4
-rw-rw-r-- 1 mynewuser mynewuser 24 Jan 23 06:20 testfile
mynewuser@h2866085:~$ cp testfile /etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile
cp: reguläre Datei '/etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile' kann nicht angelegt werden: Keine Berechtigung
mynewuser@h2866085:~$ sudo cp testfile /etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile
[sudo] Passwort für mynewuser: 
mynewuser ist nicht in der sudoers-Datei. Dieser Vorfall wird gemeldet.
mynewuser@h2866085:~$

Sudo allows the root user of the system to give other users on the system (or groups) the ability to run some (or all) commands as root. The sudo configuration is detailed in /etc/sudoers file.

In my sudo configuration file it is already preconfigured that all users in the sudo group can execute all commands as root. Please note the corresponding entry %sudo ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL in the /etc/sudoers configuration file below.

I want that the the user mynewuser should be able to execute all commands as root. Therefore mynewuser must be added to the sudo group.

To make mynewuser a member of the sudo group I use the command usermod. Therefore I log in with root using the su root command. Then I run usermod with -a and -G option, which basically says to append a user to a Group.

Finally I check with cat /etc/group that the sudo group contain the mynewuser and logoff from the root account using exit.

mynewuser@h2866085:~$ su root
Passwort: 
root@h2866085:/home/mynewuser# 
root@h2866085:/home/mynewuser# cat /etc/sudoers
#
# This file MUST be edited with the 'visudo' command as root.
#
# Please consider adding local content in /etc/sudoers.d/ instead of
# directly modifying this file.
#
# See the man page for details on how to write a sudoers file.
#
Defaults    env_reset
Defaults    mail_badpass
Defaults    secure_path="/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/snap/bin"

# Host alias specification

# User alias specification

# Cmnd alias specification

# User privilege specification
root    ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

# Members of the admin group may gain root privileges
%admin ALL=(ALL) ALL

# Allow members of group sudo to execute any command
%sudo    ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

# See sudoers(5) for more information on "#include" directives:

#includedir /etc/sudoers.d

root@h2866085:/home/mynewuser# usermod -a -G sudo mynewuser
root@h2866085:/home/patrick# cat /etc/group
root:x:0:
daemon:x:1:
bin:x:2:
...
sudo:x:27:mynewuser
....
root@h2866085:/home/patrick# exit
mynewuser@h2866085:~$

Advanced Package Tool on Ubuntu Linux

But before we start with software installations I need to give you some background info about Ubuntu or Debian package management.

Whenever you want to install software on your Ubuntu system, you can use the Advanced Package Tool or APT for short. Users interact with APT using the apt command. APT download the software package from a package source and then install it.

The software package can only be installed if the package source is known to the APT system. Therefore package sources are listed in the file /etc/apt/sources.list or in further files with the extension .list in the directory /etc/apt/sources.list.d.

When you call apt install <package-name> on your console APT first check the package sources listed in your /etc/apt/sources.list file. When the system find the package on one of these package sources APT will install the software from there.

When the software is not available on any package sources listed in /etc/apt/sources.list APT check the package sources listed in the .list files in your /etc/apt/sources.list.d directory.

When APT does not find the package on any package sources the software package cannot be installed until the package source is entered either in /etc/apt/sources.list or in a separate .list file in the /etc/apt/sources.list.d directory.

The entries in .list files regardless of whether they are in /etc/apt/sources.list or /etc/apt/sources.list.d/*.list are structured identically. The structure of the .list files is divided into 4 sections.

Example:
deb    ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic     main restricted universe
<type> <URI>                                       <archive>  <component>

The above listed package source is an ftp server that contain binary packages for the Ubuntu Bionic Distribution (bionic). The Binary Packages include packages that meet the Ubuntu licensing requirements and are supported by the Ubuntu team (main), software packages that the Ubuntu developers support because of their importance, but which are not under Ubuntu licensing (restricted) and a wide range of free software (no licensing restrictions) that is not officially supported by Ubuntu (universe).

Universe software is maintained by the Masters of the Universe (MOTU Developers). If a MOTU Developer want a software to be included in the Ubuntu package sources, this Developer must suggest the package for the Universe. MOTUs also maintain Multiverse software. Multiverse software is also managed by the MOTUs but the difference is that Multiverse software is not free Software. Multiverse software is subject to licensing restrictions. More details can be read in the Ubuntu Package Management Documentation on the Ubuntu Website.

The .list file can be crated manually using an editor like nano or with the following command. Here in this example to create a mongoDB source file.

echo "deb [ arch=amd64,arm64 ] https://repo.mongodb.org/apt/ubuntu bionic/mongodb-org/4.2 multiverse" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-4.2.list

In order to check a package source for authenticity, the GPG key of the package source provided by the manufacturer must also be downloaded and added to the Ubuntu APT keyring using the apt-key add command. Here in this example to add the key to verify the mongoDB source.

wget -qO - https://www.mongodb.org/static/pgp/server-4.2.asc | sudo apt-key add -

With wget I download the public key from the mongodb.org server and pipe it into the apt-key add command which finally add the key to the keyring.

Alternatively you can use the add-apt-repository utility or script to automate package source entries in your /etc/apt/sources.list file. From Debian 8 on add-apt-repository is part of the Debian Package software-properties-common which must be installed in case you want to use this utility for your package source management.

apt-get update
apt-get install software-properties-common

Using add-apt-repository the package source will be appended to the /etc/apt/sources.listfile. No separate file will be created in /etc/apt/sources.list.d directory. Here is the example how to add the package source for the mongoDB.

sudo add-apt-repository 'deb [arch=amd64] https://repo.mongodb.org/apt/ubuntu bionic/mongodb-org/4.2 multiverse'

The utility add-apt-repository can also be used to install software from Personal Package Archives (PPA). PPAs are a special service for MOTU Developers (Masters of the Universe) to provide Ubuntu packages that are built and published with Launchpad. When you use add-apt-repository to install a PPA a new .list file will be created in your /etc/apt/sources.list.d directory.

add-apt-repository ppa:user/ppa-name

When you use add-apt-repository the PPA’s key is automatically fetched and added to the keyring. You can read more about PPA packaging on the launchpad help page.

You should not use PPA software in production environments. The reason is that PPA software is often not maintained regularly by the MOTUs on launchpad. In general MOTUs publish their first versions on launchpad and then integrate them into the main Ubuntu Universe or Multiverse sources. So read the documentation and if possible try to install your production packages from main sources. You can see this in the following example when I install nodejs and npm from a main source.

Nodejs and NPM Installation

To run a node application you definitely need the node platform nodejs and the node package manager npm.

Go to the nodejs.org download page to find out the latest version of node to install. I recommend to install the latest LTS version (Long Term Support) which is at the time of writing this document node version 14.15.5 including npm in version 6.14.11.

When you scroll down on the nodejs.org download page you see the install options. I prefer to install nodejs via package manager. Here you select your distribution so I select Debian and Ubuntu based Linux distributions. The nodejs binaries are available on GitHub nodesource repository. I choose Debian and Ubuntu based distributions (deb) manual installation.

Since I did not installed nodejs via PPA before I can skip the first step described here in the documentation. So I start with the import of the package signing key to ensure that apt can verify the new node source.

$ wget --quiet -O - https://deb.nodesource.com/gpgkey/nodesource.gpg.key | sudo apt-key add -

The key ID at the time of writing this document is 1655A0AB68576280.

You can check the imported key using the apt-key command.

$ sudo apt-key fingerprint ABF5BD827BD9BF62

The output should be.

pub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [SC]
      9FD3 B784 BC1C 6FC3 1A8A  0A1C 1655 A0AB 6857 6280
uid        [ unbekannt] NodeSource <gpg@nodesource.com>
sub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [E]

Then I create the nodesource.list file in my /etc/apt/sources.list.d directory to make the nodejs package source known to apt. I create 2 entries in that file one for the nodejs debian binaries (deb) and one for the nodejs sources (deb-src).

# Replace $VERSION with Node.js Version you want to install: i.e. node_14.x
# $VERSION=node_14.x
# Replace $DISTRO with the output of the command lsb_release -s -c
# $DISTRO=bionic
$ echo "deb https://deb.nodesource.com/$VERSION $DISTRO main" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nodesource.list
$ echo "deb-src https://deb.nodesource.com/$VERSION $DISTRO main" | sudo tee -a /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nodesource.list

Then I update the source package list and install.

$ sudo apt-get update
$ sudo apt-get install nodejs

Here is my manual installation.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/apt$ ls -l sources.list.d
insgesamt 0
patrick@h2866085:/etc/apt$ apt-key list
/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2012-archive.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2012-05-11 [SC]
      790B C727 7767 219C 42C8  6F93 3B4F E6AC C0B2 1F32
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu Archive Automatic Signing Key (2012) <ftpmaster@ubuntu.com>

/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2012-cdimage.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2012-05-11 [SC]
      8439 38DF 228D 22F7 B374  2BC0 D94A A3F0 EFE2 1092
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu CD Image Automatic Signing Key (2012) <cdimage@ubuntu.com>

/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2018-archive.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2018-09-17 [SC]
      F6EC B376 2474 EDA9 D21B  7022 8719 20D1 991B C93C
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu Archive Automatic Signing Key (2018) <ftpmaster@ubuntu.com>

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo wget --quiet -O - https://deb.nodesource.com/gpgkey/nodesource.gpg.key | sudo apt-key add -
[sudo] Passwort für patrick: 
OK
patrick@h2866085:~$ apt-key list
/etc/apt/trusted.gpg
--------------------
pub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [SC]
      9FD3 B784 BC1C 6FC3 1A8A  0A1C 1655 A0AB 6857 6280
uid        [ unbekannt] NodeSource <gpg@nodesource.com>
sub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [E]

/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2012-archive.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2012-05-11 [SC]
      790B C727 7767 219C 42C8  6F93 3B4F E6AC C0B2 1F32
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu Archive Automatic Signing Key (2012) <ftpmaster@ubuntu.com>

/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2012-cdimage.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2012-05-11 [SC]
      8439 38DF 228D 22F7 B374  2BC0 D94A A3F0 EFE2 1092
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu CD Image Automatic Signing Key (2012) <cdimage@ubuntu.com>

/etc/apt/trusted.gpg.d/ubuntu-keyring-2018-archive.gpg
------------------------------------------------------
pub   rsa4096 2018-09-17 [SC]
      F6EC B376 2474 EDA9 D21B  7022 8719 20D1 991B C93C
uid        [ unbekannt] Ubuntu Archive Automatic Signing Key (2018) <ftpmaster@ubuntu.com>

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt-key fingerprint 1655A0AB68576280
pub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [SC]
      9FD3 B784 BC1C 6FC3 1A8A  0A1C 1655 A0AB 6857 6280
uid        [ unbekannt] NodeSource <gpg@nodesource.com>
sub   rsa4096 2014-06-13 [E]

patrick@h2866085:~$ lsb_release -s -c
bionic
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo echo "deb https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nodesource.list
deb https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo echo "deb-src https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main" | sudo tee -a /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nodesource.list
deb-src https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main
patrick@h2866085:~$ ls -l /etc/apt/sources.list.d
insgesamt 4
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 110 Feb 20 08:14 nodesource.list
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo cat /etc/apt/sources.list.d/nodesource.list
deb https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main
deb-src https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic main
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt-get update
OK:1 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic InRelease
Holen:2 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates InRelease [88,7 kB]
Holen:3 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-security InRelease [88,7 kB]
Holen:4 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic/main Translation-de [454 kB]
Holen:5 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic/restricted Translation-de [2.268 B]
Holen:6 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic/universe Translation-de [2.272 kB]                       
Holen:7 https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic InRelease [4.584 B]                                                  
Holen:8 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates/universe Sources [446 kB]
Holen:9 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates/main amd64 Packages [1.885 kB]
Holen:10 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates/universe amd64 Packages [1.718 kB]
Holen:11 https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic/main amd64 Packages [764 B]
Holen:12 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates/universe Translation-en [363 kB]
Holen:13 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-security/universe Sources [277 kB]
Holen:14 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-security/universe amd64 Packages [1.109 kB]
Holen:15 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-security/universe Translation-en [248 kB]
Es wurden 8.957 kB in 3 s geholt (3.459 kB/s).                    
Paketlisten werden gelesen... Fertig
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt-get install nodejs
patrick@h2866085:~$ node -v
v14.15.5
patrick@h2866085:~$ npm -v
6.14.11
patrick@h2866085:~$ 

Basically we installed npm in a bundle together with nodejs using the apt package manager. But npm itself is also an additional package manager. We now have apt and npm as package managers on our system.

We need npm to have an additional source for software available on npmjs.com. We will for example install PM2 via npm (see next chapter) but but in particular we need npm to add local software packages or dependencies to our node application projects. So when we want to develop a node app based on the expressjs framework we will install express locally in our project directory. But this will be part of a separate tutorial.

When you ask npm to find outdated packages you can run the npm outdated command (using the -g option to show only global packages).

patrick@h2866085:~$ npm outdated -g --depth=0
Package  Current   Wanted  Latest  Location
npm      6.14.11  6.14.11   7.5.4  global

As you see from an npm point of view the latest version of npm is 7.5.4. But npm know that we installed npm together as a bundle with nodejs via apt and in the apt package sources we say that our wanted version is 14.15.5 (see above). This is a bit confusing but basically npm outdated tell us that that there is a higher npm version available (latest) but on our system we are up to date as the current version and the one we defined in our package sources (wanted) are equal.

We can update npm together only together with the nodejs update which must be initiated with apt-update. And here you see the packages are all up to date.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt update
OK:1 https://deb.nodesource.com/node_14.x bionic InRelease
OK:2 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic InRelease
OK:3 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-updates InRelease
OK:4 ftp://ftp.stratoserver.net/pub/linux/ubuntu bionic-security InRelease
Paketlisten werden gelesen... Fertig
Abhängigkeitsbaum wird aufgebaut.       
Statusinformationen werden eingelesen.... Fertig
Alle Pakete sind aktuell.
patrick@h2866085:~$  

PM2 Installation with NPM

Go to npmjs.com and search for PM2 Process Manager. You find the PM2 package on npmjs.com. Follow the install instructions.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo npm install pm2 -g
patrick@h2866085:~$ pm2 -v
                        -------------

__/\\\\\\\\\\\\\____/\\\\____________/\\\\____/\\\\\\\\\_____
 _\/\\\/////////\\\_\/\\\\\\________/\\\\\\__/\\\///////\\\___
  _\/\\\_______\/\\\_\/\\\//\\\____/\\\//\\\_\///______\//\\\__
   _\/\\\\\\\\\\\\\/__\/\\\\///\\\/\\\/_\/\\\___________/\\\/___
    _\/\\\/////////____\/\\\__\///\\\/___\/\\\________/\\\//_____
     _\/\\\_____________\/\\\____\///_____\/\\\_____/\\\//________
      _\/\\\_____________\/\\\_____________\/\\\___/\\\/___________
       _\/\\\_____________\/\\\_____________\/\\\__/\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\_
        _\///______________\///______________\///__\///////////////__

                          Runtime Edition

        PM2 is a Production Process Manager for Node.js applications
                     with a built-in Load Balancer.

                Start and Daemonize any application:
                $ pm2 start app.js

                Load Balance 4 instances of api.js:
                $ pm2 start api.js -i 4

                Monitor in production:
                $ pm2 monitor

                Make pm2 auto-boot at server restart:
                $ pm2 startup

                To go further checkout:
                http://pm2.io/
                        -------------
[PM2] Spawning PM2 daemon with pm2_home=/home/patrick/.pm2
[PM2] PM2 Successfully daemonized
4.5.4
patrick@h2866085:~$ 

Nano Installation with apt

Nano is part of the Ubuntu 18.04 bionic main packages that are provided via the standard ftp package sources from my provider at stratoserver.net. These standard ftp package sources are in my /etc/apt/sources.list file and can be installed with apt.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt install nano
patrick@h2866085:~$

Nginx Installation with apt

Also Nginx is a package that is available under the standard Ubuntu main sources. Nginx is part of the Ubuntu 18.04 bionic main packages provided via the standard ftp package sources from my provider at stratoserver.net. Nginx can be installed from these sources using the apt command.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo apt install nginx
patrick@h2866085:~$

After the installation is complete the Nginx configuration files are in /etc/nginx directory.

patrick@h2866085:~$ ls -l /etc/nginx
insgesamt 64
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jan 10  2020 conf.d
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1077 Apr  6  2018 fastcgi.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1007 Apr  6  2018 fastcgi_params
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2837 Apr  6  2018 koi-utf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2223 Apr  6  2018 koi-win
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3957 Apr  6  2018 mime.types
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jan 10  2020 modules-available
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 modules-enabled
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1482 Apr  6  2018 nginx.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root  180 Apr  6  2018 proxy_params
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root  636 Apr  6  2018 scgi_params
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 sites-available
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 sites-enabled
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 snippets
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root  664 Apr  6  2018 uwsgi_params
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3071 Apr  6  2018 win-utf
patrick@h2866085:~$ 

Then I edit the /etc/nginx.conf as follows.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo cat nginx.conf
##
# nginx.conf
##

user www-data; 
worker_processes auto;
pid /run/nginx.pid;
include /etc/nginx/modules-enabled/*.conf;

events {
worker_connections 768;
}

http {

##
# Basic Settings
##

sendfile on;
tcp_nopush on;
tcp_nodelay on;
types_hash_max_size 2048;

include /etc/nginx/mime.types;
default_type application/octet-stream;
##
# Timeout Settings
##
keepalive_timeout  30s; 
keepalive_requests 30;
send_timeout       30s;
##
# SSL Settings
##

ssl_protocols TLSv1 TLSv1.1 TLSv1.2; # Dropping SSLv3, ref: POODLE
ssl_prefer_server_ciphers on;

##
# Gzip Settings
##

gzip on;
gzip_vary on;
gzip_comp_level 2;
gzip_min_length  1000;
gzip_http_version 1.1;
gzip_types text/plain text/css application/json application/javascript text/xml application/xml application/xml+rss text/javascript;
gzip_disable "MSIE [4-6] \."; 
##
# Virtual Host Configs
##

include /etc/nginx/conf.d/*.conf;
include /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/*;
}

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$

In the directory /etc/nginx/sites-available you find the sever configuration files and in /etc/nginx/sites-enabled you find the sym links to the sever configuration files that are enabled on your nginx server.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ ls -l sites-available
insgesamt 4
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ ls -l sites-enabled
insgesamt 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 34 Feb 20 12:46 default -> /etc/nginx/sites-available/default
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ 

First we deactivate the default site by removing the default symlink in /etc/nginx/sites-enabled.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ cd sites-enabled
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-enabled$ ls -l
insgesamt 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 34 Feb 20 12:46 default -> /etc/nginx/sites-available/default
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-enabled$ sudo unlink default
[sudo] Passwort für patrick: 
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-enabled$ ls -l
insgesamt 0
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-enabled$ 

I want to use my nginx server as reverse proxy server for node application servers running on the localhost. Therefore I create a new file prod-reverse-proxy in the directory sites-available .

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-enabled$ cd ..
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ 
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ cd sites-available
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ ls -l
insgesamt 4
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo touch prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ ls -l
insgesamt 4
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root    0 Feb 21 08:31 prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ 

Then I put the following content in the file prod-reverse-proxy and link this file into /etc/nginx/sites-enabled.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo nano prod-reverse-proxy
server {
        listen 80;
        listen [::]:80;
        server_name digitaldocblog.com www.digitaldocblog.com;

        access_log /var/log/nginx/prod-reverse-access.log;
        error_log /var/log/nginx/prod-reverse-error.log;

        location / {

	proxy_set_header HOST $host;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-Proto $scheme;

proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;

	proxy_pass http://127.0.0.1:3000;


  }
}
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo ln -s /etc/nginx/sites-available/prod-reverse-proxy /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ cd ..
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ ls -l sites-enabled
insgesamt 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 50 Feb 21 08:37 prod-reverse-proxy -> /etc/nginx/sites-available/prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo nginx -t
nginx: the configuration file /etc/nginx/nginx.conf syntax is ok
nginx: configuration file /etc/nginx/nginx.conf test is successful
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ 

The production proxy server is running under the domain server names digitaldocblog.com and www.digitaldocblog.com and is listening on localhost port 80. This production proxy server pass all HTTP traffic from port 80 to a server running on localhost port 3000 (127.0.0.1:3000). Nginx configuration test was tested successful after using nginx -t.

The following commands can be used to check, start and stop the nginx server.

sudo systemctl status nginx

sudo systemctl start nginx 

sudo systemctl stop nginx 

sudo systemctl restart nginx

I restart the nginx server and then check the status. The basic configuration is now complete.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo systemctl restart nginx
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo systemctl status nginx
● nginx.service - A high performance web server and a reverse proxy server
   Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/nginx.service; enabled; vendor preset: enabled)
   Active: active (running) since Sun 2021-02-21 08:53:31 CET; 9s ago
     Docs: man:nginx(8)
  Process: 29759 ExecStop=/sbin/start-stop-daemon --quiet --stop --retry QUIT/5 --pidfile /run/nginx.pid (code=exited, status=0/SUCCESS)
  Process: 29761 ExecStart=/usr/sbin/nginx -g daemon on; master_process on; (code=exited, status=0/SUCCESS)
  Process: 29760 ExecStartPre=/usr/sbin/nginx -t -q -g daemon on; master_process on; (code=exited, status=0/SUCCESS)
 Main PID: 29762 (nginx)
    Tasks: 5 (limit: 60)
   CGroup: /system.slice/nginx.service
           ├─29762 nginx: master process /usr/sbin/nginx -g daemon on; master_process on;
           ├─29763 nginx: worker process
           ├─29764 nginx: worker process
           ├─29765 nginx: worker process
           └─29766 nginx: worker process

Feb 21 08:53:31 h2866085.stratoserver.net systemd[1]: Starting A high performance web server and a reverse proxy server...
Feb 21 08:53:31 h2866085.stratoserver.net systemd[1]: Started A high performance web server and a reverse proxy server.
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ 

Letsencrypt SSL Certificate

To run your server with HTTPS you must install a certificate from an official Centification Authority (CA). Letsencrypt is such a CA where you can get free certificates. Letsencrypt recommends the use of certbot for easy creation and management of domain certificates.

On the certbot site you can select the webserver and your operating system. I choose nginx and Ubuntu 18.04 LTS bionic and get to a website with the install instructions. Since I am not interested in installing certbot with snap, I choose alternate installation instructions and get to the website with the install instructions of the operating system packages.

I must Install certbot and the certbot nginx plugin with apt.

$ sudo apt update
$ sudo apt-get install certbot
$ sudo apt-get install python-certbot-nginx

Then I run certbot --``nginx to request the letsencrypt certificate for my domain and domain servers.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo certbot --nginx
Saving debug log to /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log
Plugins selected: Authenticator nginx, Installer nginx
Enter email address (used for urgent renewal and security notices) (Enter 'c' to
cancel): p.rottlaender@icloud.com

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Please read the Terms of Service at
https://letsencrypt.org/documents/LE-SA-v1.2-November-15-2017.pdf. You must
agree in order to register with the ACME server at
https://acme-v02.api.letsencrypt.org/directory
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(A)gree/(C)ancel: A

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Would you be willing to share your email address with the Electronic Frontier
Foundation, a founding partner of the Let's Encrypt project and the non-profit
organization that develops Certbot? We'd like to send you email about our work
encrypting the web, EFF news, campaigns, and ways to support digital freedom.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(Y)es/(N)o: Y

Which names would you like to activate HTTPS for?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1: digitaldocblog.com
2: www.digitaldocblog.com
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Select the appropriate numbers separated by commas and/or spaces, or leave input
blank to select all options shown (Enter 'c' to cancel): 
Obtaining a new certificate
Performing the following challenges:
http-01 challenge for digitaldocblog.com
http-01 challenge for www.digitaldocblog.com
Waiting for verification...
Cleaning up challenges
Deploying Certificate to VirtualHost /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/prod-reverse-proxy
Deploying Certificate to VirtualHost /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/prod-reverse-proxy

Please choose whether or not to redirect HTTP traffic to HTTPS, removing HTTP access.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1: No redirect - Make no further changes to the webserver configuration.
2: Redirect - Make all requests redirect to secure HTTPS access. Choose this for
new sites, or if you're confident your site works on HTTPS. You can undo this
change by editing your web server's configuration.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Select the appropriate number [1-2] then [enter] (press 'c' to cancel): 2
Redirecting all traffic on port 80 to ssl in /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/prod-reverse-proxy
Redirecting all traffic on port 80 to ssl in /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/prod-reverse-proxy

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Congratulations! You have successfully enabled https://digitaldocblog.com and
https://www.digitaldocblog.com

You should test your configuration at:
https://www.ssllabs.com/ssltest/analyze.html?d=digitaldocblog.com
https://www.ssllabs.com/ssltest/analyze.html?d=www.digitaldocblog.com
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

IMPORTANT NOTES:
 - Congratulations! Your certificate and chain have been saved at:
   /etc/letsencrypt/live/digitaldocblog.com/fullchain.pem
   Your key file has been saved at:
   /etc/letsencrypt/live/digitaldocblog.com/privkey.pem
   Your cert will expire on 2021-05-24. To obtain a new or tweaked
   version of this certificate in the future, simply run certbot again
   with the "certonly" option. To non-interactively renew *all* of
   your certificates, run "certbot renew"
 - Your account credentials have been saved in your Certbot
   configuration directory at /etc/letsencrypt. You should make a
   secure backup of this folder now. This configuration directory will
   also contain certificates and private keys obtained by Certbot so
   making regular backups of this folder is ideal.
 - If you like Certbot, please consider supporting our work by:

   Donating to ISRG / Let's Encrypt:   https://letsencrypt.org/donate
   Donating to EFF:                    https://eff.org/donate-le

patrick@h2866085:~$ 

Then I check the new directory and the files in /etc/letsencrypt.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ sudo ls -l live
insgesamt 4
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 06:33 digitaldocblog.com
patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ sudo ls -l live/digitaldocblog.com
insgesamt 4
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  42 Feb 23 06:33 cert.pem -> ../../archive/digitaldocblog.com/cert1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  43 Feb 23 06:33 chain.pem -> ../../archive/digitaldocblog.com/chain1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  47 Feb 23 06:33 fullchain.pem -> ../../archive/digitaldocblog.com/fullchain1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  45 Feb 23 06:33 privkey.pem -> ../../archive/digitaldocblog.com/privkey1.pem
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 682 Feb 23 06:33 README
patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ 

I also check the file prod-reverse-proxy in the directory /etc/nginx/sites-available and see that the file has been updated by certbot. There is a new server section defined (first) an this server is now listening to port 443 ssl and the links to the ssl certificates has been added. The original server section (second) has been changed so that all traffic for hosts digitaldocblog.com and www.digitaldocblog.com will be redirected to the https version of the site (return 301 https://$host$request_uri😉 and requests to port 80 will be answered with 404 site not found.

patrick@h2866085:~$ cd /etc/nginx/sites-available
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ ls -l
insgesamt 12
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1089 Feb 23 06:34 prod-reverse-proxy

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo cat prod-reverse-proxy
server {
server_name digitaldocblog.com www.digitaldocblog.com;

        access_log /var/log/nginx/prod-reverse-access.log;
        error_log /var/log/nginx/prod-reverse-error.log;

        location / {

	proxy_set_header HOST $host;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-Proto $scheme;

proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;

	proxy_pass http://127.0.0.1:3000;


  }
    listen [::]:443 ssl ipv6only=on; # managed by Certbot
    listen 443 ssl; # managed by Certbot
    ssl_certificate /etc/letsencrypt/live/digitaldocblog.com/fullchain.pem; # managed by Certbot
      ssl_certificate_key /etc/letsencrypt/live/digitaldocblog.com/privkey.pem; # managed by Certbot
    include /etc/letsencrypt/options-ssl-nginx.conf; # managed by Certbot
    ssl_dhparam /etc/letsencrypt/ssl-dhparams.pem; # managed by Certbot
}

server {

    if ($host = www.digitaldocblog.com) {
        return 301 https://$host$request_uri;
    } # managed by Certbot

    if ($host = digitaldocblog.com) {
        return 301 https://$host$request_uri;
    } # managed by Certbot

        listen 80;
        listen [::]:80;
        server_name digitaldocblog.com www.digitaldocblog.com;
        return 404; # managed by Certbot
}

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ 

To renew all certificates I must run the following command.

$ certbot renew

To renew all certificates automatically I attach the following line to my system crontab.

40 6 * * * root /usr/bin/certbot renew > certrenew_log

The certbot renew command in this example run daily at 6:40 am (in the morning) as root and log the output in the logfile certrenew_log in the home directory of root. The command checks to see if the certificate on the server will expire within the next 30 days, and renews it if so.

Therefore you must edit the /etc/crontab file as follows.

patrick@h2866085:/etc$ sudo nano crontab
# /etc/crontab: system-wide crontab
# Unlike any other crontab you don't have to run the `crontab'
# command to install the new version when you edit this file
# and files in /etc/cron.d. These files also have username fields,
# that none of the other crontabs do.

SHELL=/bin/sh
PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin

# m h dom mon dow user  command
15 * * * * root cd / && run-parts --report /etc/cron.hourly
28 0 * * * root test -x /usr/sbin/anacron || ( cd / && run-parts --report /etc/cron.daily )
9 5 * * 7 root test -x /usr/sbin/anacron || ( cd / && run-parts --report /etc/cron.weekly )
52 0 20 * * root test -x /usr/sbin/anacron || ( cd / && run-parts --report /etc/cron.monthly )

40 6 * * * root /usr/bin/certbot renew > certrenew_log
#
patrick@h2866085:/etc$

Separate Letsencrypt SSL Certificate for another proxy server

I currently have 2 server files in my /etc/nginx/sites-available directory.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ ls -l
insgesamt 8
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1089 Feb 23 06:34 prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ 

The file default is disabled.

The file prod-reverse-proxy is enabled. The server run as reverse proxy server for the hostnames digitaldocblog.com and www.digitaldocblog.com already using SSL (see above).

For my hostname dev.digitaldocblog.com, which is a valid subdomain of domain digitaldocblog.com I create a separate proxy server file dev-reverse-proxy in the directory /etc/nginx/sites-available, link this file in ****/etc/nginx/sites-enabled, test the nginx configuration and restart nginx.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo touch dev-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ ls -al
insgesamt 16
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 13:42 .
drwxr-xr-x 8 root root 4096 Feb 23 06:34 ..
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 2416 Apr  6  2018 default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root    0 Feb 23 13:42 dev-reverse-proxy
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 1089 Feb 23 06:34 prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ sudo nano dev-reverse-proxy
server {
    listen 80;
    server_name dev.digitaldocblog.com;

        access_log /var/log/nginx/dev-reverse-access.log;
        error_log /var/log/nginx/dev-reverse-error.log;

        location / {

	proxy_set_header HOST $host;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-Proto $scheme;

proxy_set_header X-Real-IP $remote_addr;

proxy_set_header X-Forwarded-For $proxy_add_x_forwarded_for;

            	proxy_pass http://127.0.0.1:3030;
  }

}
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx/sites-available$ cd ..
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo ln -s /etc/nginx/sites-available/dev-reverse-proxy /etc/nginx/sites-enabled
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ ls -l sites-enabled
insgesamt 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 44 Feb 23 13:51 dev-reverse-proxy -> /etc/nginx/sites-available/dev-reverse-proxy
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 45 Feb 22 19:33 prod-reverse-proxy -> /etc/nginx/sites-available/prod-reverse-proxy
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo nginx -t
nginx: the configuration file /etc/nginx/nginx.conf syntax is ok
nginx: configuration file /etc/nginx/nginx.conf test is successful
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo systemctl restart nginx
patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$

Then I run certbot --nginx to request a seperate letsencrypt SSL certificate only for the subdomain dev.digitaldocblog.com.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$ sudo certbot --nginx
Saving debug log to /var/log/letsencrypt/letsencrypt.log
Plugins selected: Authenticator nginx, Installer nginx

Which names would you like to activate HTTPS for?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1: digitaldocblog.com
2: dev.digitaldocblog.com
3: www.digitaldocblog.com
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Select the appropriate numbers separated by commas and/or spaces, or leave input
blank to select all options shown (Enter 'c' to cancel): 2
Obtaining a new certificate
Performing the following challenges:
http-01 challenge for dev.digitaldocblog.com
Waiting for verification...
Cleaning up challenges
Deploying Certificate to VirtualHost /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/dev-reverse-proxy

Please choose whether or not to redirect HTTP traffic to HTTPS, removing HTTP access.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1: No redirect - Make no further changes to the webserver configuration.
2: Redirect - Make all requests redirect to secure HTTPS access. Choose this for
new sites, or if you're confident your site works on HTTPS. You can undo this
change by editing your web server's configuration.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Select the appropriate number [1-2] then [enter] (press 'c' to cancel): 2
Redirecting all traffic on port 80 to ssl in /etc/nginx/sites-enabled/dev-reverse-proxy

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Congratulations! You have successfully enabled https://dev.digitaldocblog.com

You should test your configuration at:
https://www.ssllabs.com/ssltest/analyze.html?d=dev.digitaldocblog.com
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

IMPORTANT NOTES:
 - Congratulations! Your certificate and chain have been saved at:
   /etc/letsencrypt/live/dev.digitaldocblog.com/fullchain.pem
   Your key file has been saved at:
   /etc/letsencrypt/live/dev.digitaldocblog.com/privkey.pem
   Your cert will expire on 2021-05-24. To obtain a new or tweaked
   version of this certificate in the future, simply run certbot again
   with the "certonly" option. To non-interactively renew *all* of
   your certificates, run "certbot renew"
 - If you like Certbot, please consider supporting our work by:

   Donating to ISRG / Let's Encrypt:   https://letsencrypt.org/donate
   Donating to EFF:                    https://eff.org/donate-le

patrick@h2866085:/etc/nginx$

Then I check the new directory and the files in /etc/letsencrypt.

patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ pwd
/etc/letsencrypt
patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ sudo ls -l live
[sudo] Passwort für patrick: 
insgesamt 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 13:54 dev.digitaldocblog.com
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 06:33 digitaldocblog.com
patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ sudo ls -l live/dev.digitaldocblog.com
insgesamt 4
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  46 Feb 23 13:54 cert.pem -> ../../archive/dev.digitaldocblog.com/cert1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  47 Feb 23 13:54 chain.pem -> ../../archive/dev.digitaldocblog.com/chain1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  51 Feb 23 13:54 fullchain.pem -> ../../archive/dev.digitaldocblog.com/fullchain1.pem
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  49 Feb 23 13:54 privkey.pem -> ../../archive/dev.digitaldocblog.com/privkey1.pem
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 682 Feb 23 13:54 README
patrick@h2866085:/etc/letsencrypt$ 

Directory Setup for node applications

I run my node applications on my server in /var/www/node directory. The node directory is owned by root.

All files of my Node Dev Applications will be copied to /var/www/node/dev using the user patrick. This directory is owned by patrick . According to the configuration in dev-reverse-proxy all http requests coming in for server name dev.digitaldocblog.com will be passed to localhost 127.0.0.1 server port 3030. All dev applications must listen on localhost 127.0.0.1 server port 3030.

All files of my Node Prod Application will be copied to /var/www/node/prod also using the user patrick. The prod directory is also owned by the user patrick. According to configuration in prod-reverse-proxy all http requests coming in for server names digitaldocblog.com and www.digitaldocblog.com will be passed to localhost 127.0.0.1 server port 3000. Prod application must listen on localhost 127.0.0.1 server port 3000.

patrick@h2866085:/etc$ cd /var
patrick@h2866085:/var$ ls
backups  cache  lib  local  lock  log  mail  opt  run  spool  tmp  www
patrick@h2866085:/var$ cd www
patrick@h2866085:/var/www$ ls -l
insgesamt 4
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 html
patrick@h2866085:/var/www$ sudo mkdir node
patrick@h2866085:/var/www$ ls -l
insgesamt 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 20 12:46 html
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 08:53 node
patrick@h2866085:/var/www$ cd node
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ ls -l
insgesamt 0
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ sudo mkdir prod
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ sudo mkdir dev
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ ls -l
insgesamt 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 08:56 dev
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 23 08:56 prod
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ sudo chown patrick:patrick dev
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ sudo chown patrick:patrick prod
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$ ls -al
insgesamt 16
drwxr-xr-x 4 root    root    4096 Feb 23 08:56 .
drwxr-xr-x 4 root    root    4096 Feb 23 08:53 ..
drwxr-xr-x 2 patrick patrick 4096 Feb 23 08:56 dev
drwxr-xr-x 2 patrick patrick 4096 Feb 23 08:56 prod
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node$

MongoDB Community Server Installation

Most node applications also interact with a database. My preferred database is MongoDB. Go on the MongoDB website and read more about the free MongoDB Community Server. To read how to install the mongoDB in your environment go to the MongoDB Documentation Site.

I select the installation instructions of the MongoDB Community Server for my Ubuntu Linux 18.04 bionic LTS system.

Then I Import the public key used by the package management system to verify the package source.

$ wget -qO - https://www.mongodb.org/static/pgp/server-4.4.asc | sudo apt-key add -

Then I create the list file /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-4.4.list for my version of Ubuntu.

$ echo "deb [ arch=amd64,arm64 ] https://repo.mongodb.org/apt/ubuntu bionic/mongodb-org/4.4 multiverse" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-4.4.list

I reload the local package database with apt-get update and install a specific release including all relevant component packages with apt-get install such as

• server
• shell
• mongos
• tools
  
  
  $ sudo apt-get update
  $ sudo apt-get install -y mongodb-org=4.4.4 mongodb-org-server=4.4.4 mongodb-org-shell=4.4.4 mongodb-org-mongos=4.4.4 mongodb-org-tools=4.4.4
  

Mongodb can be started, restarted etc. with the following commands.

:$ sudo service mongod status

:$ sudo service mongod start

:$ sudo service mongod stop

:$ sudo service mongod restart

After the installation the mongoDB server must be started.

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo service mongod status
● mongod.service - MongoDB Database Server
   Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/mongod.service; disabled; vendor preset: enabled)
   Active: inactive (dead)
     Docs: https://docs.mongodb.org/manual

patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo service mongod start
patrick@h2866085:~$ sudo service mongod status
● mongod.service - MongoDB Database Server
   Loaded: loaded (/lib/systemd/system/mongod.service; disabled; vendor preset: enabled)
   Active: active (running) since Tue 2021-02-23 08:49:14 CET; 3s ago
     Docs: https://docs.mongodb.org/manual
 Main PID: 27830 (mongod)
   CGroup: /system.slice/mongod.service
           └─27830 /usr/bin/mongod --config /etc/mongod.conf

Feb 23 08:49:14 h2866085.stratoserver.net systemd[1]: Started MongoDB Database Server.
patrick@h2866085:~$

Then I create the admin user myUserAdmin against the admin db.

patrick@h2866085:~$ mongo
MongoDB shell version v4.4.4
connecting to: mongodb://127.0.0.1:27017/?compressors=disabled&gssapiServiceName=mongodb
Implicit session: session { "id" : UUID("8df6776d-4228-43f5-9222-65893d6f146c") }
MongoDB server version: 4.4.4
---
The server generated these startup warnings when booting: 
        2021-02-23T08:49:15.047+01:00: Using the XFS filesystem is strongly recommended with the WiredTiger storage engine. See http://dochub.mongodb.org/core/prodnotes-filesystem
        2021-02-23T08:49:15.718+01:00: Access control is not enabled for the database. Read and write access to data and configuration is unrestricted
        2021-02-23T08:49:15.718+01:00: You are running in OpenVZ which can cause issues on versions of RHEL older than RHEL6
---
---
        Enable MongoDB's free cloud-based monitoring service, which will then receive and display
        metrics about your deployment (disk utilization, CPU, operation statistics, etc).

        The monitoring data will be available on a MongoDB website with a unique URL accessible to you
        and anyone you share the URL with. MongoDB may use this information to make product
        improvements and to suggest MongoDB products and deployment options to you.

        To enable free monitoring, run the following command: db.enableFreeMonitoring()
        To permanently disable this reminder, run the following command: db.disableFreeMonitoring()
---
> use admin
switched to db admin
> db
admin
> db.createUser({ user: "myUserAdmin", pwd: "yourAdminPassword", roles: [{ role: "userAdminAnyDatabase", db: "admin" }, {"role" : "readWriteAnyDatabase", "db" : "admin"}] })
Successfully added user: {
"user" : "myUserAdmin",
"roles" : [
{
"role" : "userAdminAnyDatabase",
"db" : "admin"
},
{
"role" : "readWriteAnyDatabase",
"db" : "admin"
}
]
}
> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "yourAdminPassword")
1
> show users
{
"_id" : "admin.myUserAdmin",
"userId" : UUID("6b32b520-090b-411b-9569-4ecc70109707"),
"user" : "myUserAdmin",
"db" : "admin",
"roles" : [
{
"role" : "userAdminAnyDatabase",
"db" : "admin"
},
{
"role" : "readWriteAnyDatabase",
"db" : "admin"
}
],
"mechanisms" : [
"SCRAM-SHA-1",
"SCRAM-SHA-256"
]
}
> exit
bye
patrick@h2866085:~$

Then I open /etc/mongod.conf file in my editor an add the following lines to the file if it does not already exist security: authorization: enabled.

#security:
security:
  authorization: enabled

Then I restart the mongoDB service.

patrick@h2866085:/etc$ sudo service mongod restart

I create a new database dev-bookingsystem and the Db-User myUserDevBookingsystem as the Db-owner.

patrick@h2866085:/etc$ mongo
MongoDB shell version v4.4.4
connecting to: mongodb://127.0.0.1:27017/?compressors=disabled&gssapiServiceName=mongodb
Implicit session: session { "id" : UUID("48d8e3cb-8076-47cb-8166-8e48cfae3d9a") }
MongoDB server version: 4.4.4
> use admin
switched to db admin
> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "yourAdminPassword")
1
> use dev-bookingsystem
switched to db dev-bookingsystem
> db.createUser({ user: "myUserDevBookingsystem", pwd: "yourDbUserPassword", roles: [{ role: "dbOwner", db: "dev-bookingsystem" }] })
Successfully added user: {
"user" : "myUserDevBookingsystem",
"roles" : [
{
"role" : "dbOwner",
"db" : "dev-bookingsystem"
}
]
}
> db
dev-bookingsystem
> exit
bye

Then I create a default collection in dev-bookingsystem.

patrick@h2866085:/etc$ mongo
MongoDB shell version v4.4.4
connecting to: mongodb://127.0.0.1:27017/?compressors=disabled&gssapiServiceName=mongodb
Implicit session: session { "id" : UUID("d3494272-8651-4c7e-a781-231f48a60ec4") }
MongoDB server version: 4.4.4
> use admin
switched to db admin
> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "yourAdminPassword")
1
> show dbs
admin   0.000GB
config  0.000GB
local   0.000GB
> use dev-bookingsystem
switched to db dev-bookingsystem
> db.runCommand( { create: "col_default" } )
{ "ok" : 1 }
> show collections
col_default
> show dbs
admin              0.000GB
config             0.000GB
dev-bookingsystem  0.000GB
local              0.000GB
> db
dev-bookingsystem
> exit
bye
patrick@h2866085:/etc$

I do the same thing for my production database prod-digitaldocblog.

patrick@h2866085:~$ mongo
MongoDB shell version v4.4.4
connecting to: mongodb://127.0.0.1:27017/?compressors=disabled&gssapiServiceName=mongodb
Implicit session: session { "id" : UUID("2402f47f-d1dd-4399-931e-b327ea1cf4b4") }
MongoDB server version: 4.4.4
> use admin
switched to db admin
> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "yourAdminPassword")
1
> show dbs
admin              0.000GB
config             0.000GB
dev-bookingsystem  0.000GB
local              0.000GB
> use prod-digitaldocblog
switched to db prod-digitaldocblog
> db.createUser({ user: "myUserProdDigitaldocblog", pwd: "yourDbUserPassword", roles: [{ role: "dbOwner", db: "prod-digitaldocblog" }] })
Successfully added user: {
"user" : "myUserProdDigitaldocblog",
"roles" : [
{
"role" : "dbOwner",
"db" : "prod-digitaldocblog"
}
]
}
> db
prod-digitaldocblog
> show dbs
admin              0.000GB
config             0.000GB
dev-bookingsystem  0.000GB
local              0.000GB
> db
prod-digitaldocblog
> db.runCommand( { create: "col_default" } )
{ "ok" : 1 }
> show collections
col_default
> show dbs
admin                0.000GB
config               0.000GB
dev-bookingsystem    0.000GB
local                0.000GB
prod-digitaldocblog  0.000GB
> exit
bye
patrick@h2866085:~$

Now I can connect each app with their database with the following string.

mongodb://<youruser>:<yourpassword>@localhost/<yourdatabase>

Deploy the production node app

To deploy my node app into production I first copy the package.json file into the /var/www/node/prod directory and run npm install to install all dependencies. The directory node_modules now exists in my /var/www/node/prod directory.

patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ ls -l
insgesamt 116
-rw-r--r--   1 patrick patrick   615 Jan 18 14:36 package.json
patrick@h2866085: npm install
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ ls -l
insgesamt 116
drwxrwxr-x 220 patrick patrick 12288 Feb 23 13:15 node_modules
-rw-r--r--   1 patrick patrick   615 Jan 18 14:36 package.json
-rw-rw-r--   1 patrick patrick 67705 Feb 23 13:15 package-lock.json
patrick@h2866085:

Then I copy all the application files on the server into the directory ****/var/www/node/prod .

patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ ls -al
insgesamt 132
drwxr-xr-x  10 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:17 .
drwxr-xr-x   4 root    root     4096 Feb 23 08:56 ..
drwxr-xr-x   3 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:16 app
drwxr-xr-x   2 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:16 config
-rw-------   1 patrick patrick   167 Feb 19  2020 .env
-rw-r--r--   1 patrick patrick    33 Feb 19  2020 .env.example
drwxr-xr-x   2 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:16 middleware
drwxr-xr-x   2 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:16 modules
drwxrwxr-x 220 patrick patrick 12288 Feb 23 13:15 node_modules
-rw-r--r--   1 patrick patrick   615 Jan 18 14:36 package.json
-rw-rw-r--   1 patrick patrick 67705 Feb 23 13:15 package-lock.json
-rw-r--r--   1 patrick patrick  1281 Mai 17  2020 prod.digitaldocblog.js
drwxr-xr-x   2 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:17 routes
drwxr-xr-x   7 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:17 static
drwxr-xr-x   2 patrick patrick  4096 Feb 23 13:17 views
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ nano .env

I edit my environment variables in the .env file. Here I configure in particular the server port and the database connection string.

patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ cat .env
port= 3000
host=127.0.0.1
mongodbpath=mongodb://<youruser>:<yourpassword>@localhost/<yourdatabase>
jwtkey=<yourjwtkey>
patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$

Finally I start the production application with PM2.

patrick@h2866085:/var/www/node/prod$ pm2 start prod.digitaldocblog.js

Since the installation of mongodb is developed specifically for certain Ubuntu system versions, the system version of the Ubuntu system must first be found out. This is done by entering the following command in the terminal.

:# lsb_release -dc

Description:	Ubuntu 18.04.3 LTS
Codename:		bionic

So my system is an Ubuntu 18.04.3 LTS (Long Term Support) with the code name bionic. This information is important when, as shown in the following section, the list file entry is created.

The installation itself is carried out with the package manager apt.

Basically there is also a mongodb package managed by Ubuntu that could be installed with the standard apt or apt-get installation from the apt repository. mongodb is not the desired installation and should, if it was installed on the system beforehand, be removed with apt-get remove.

It is therefore recommended to install the mongodb-org package managed by MongoDB Inc.

Since this mongodb-org package comes from a source that has not yet been verified, it is strongly recommended to import the GPG verification key offered by MongoDB Inc. to enable the apt program to check the confidentiality of the package. The corresponding public key must therefore be imported from the mongodb server.

From a terminal, issue the following command to import the MongoDB public GPG Key used by the Ubuntu apt program.

wget -qO - https://www.mongodb.org/static/pgp/server-4.2.asc | sudo apt-key add -

note: wget is a program that can be used to download files from FTP or HTTP servers from a terminal. The program is often used to start a download of data with the code of a shell script. However, it is also possible to enter a wget command directly in the terminal and thus get data from servers.

The -q option prevents wget from displaying information on the console. The option -O <FILE> writes the content of the downloaded file to a file on the local file system. If you specify the - option after the -O option, wget writes the contents of the downloaded file directly to the standard output (stdout) of the terminal. The latter is useful, for example, for reading GPG key files if these keys are then to be added directly to the keychain.

And that’s exactly what we want to do with the apt-key command. With apt-key, various commands can be used to perform actions that are carried out with the keychain.

For example, the apt-key add command adds a new key to the keychain. This key can either be stored in a file and read from there or forwarded from a previous command via the standard output of the terminal (stdout) to the standard input (stdin) for processing apt-key add. The latter is instructed by - at the end of the command.

Since this mongodb-org package is located on external mongodb http or ftp servers, these external servers must be made known to the system as confidential sources by making a corresponding list file entry in the /etc/apt/source.list.d directory.

Create the list file /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-4.2.list for your version of Ubuntu.

echo "deb [ arch=amd64 ] https://repo.mongodb.org/apt/ubuntu bionic/mongodb-org/4.2 multiverse" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/mongodb-org-4.2.list

note: With echo, strings and variables can be displayed line by line on the standard terminal output stdout. The string to be output is specified either with single quotation marks 'string' or with double quotation marks "string". Thus with the command echo 'this is an example' „this is an example“ can be shown directly in the terminal.

The pipe operator | belongs to the terminal redirects and forwards the output of a command instead of stdout directly to stdin of another command. The subsequent command can then process the result or the output of the first command. In this case here, the output of a string is forwarded to the tee command.

tee reads from the standard input stdin and doubles the read data. The data is then forwarded once to a file and to the standard edition stdout.

Now the GPG key has been added to the keychain and apt can use it to verify the mongodb-org package. In addition, the source directory of the installation packages is known to the system as a verified external source in the list file.

Installation with apt can now begin.

note: APT (Advanced Packaging Tool) is the command line tool for managing installation packages in Debian Linux. Ubuntu and other Linux distributions that come from Debian Linux also use APT. apt is the successor to apt-get and offers a different but also a wider range of functions. The commands of apt are essentially the same as those of apt-get.

Issue the following commands in the terminal.

:# sudo apt-get update

:# sudo apt-get install -y mongodb-org

The repository index is updated with upgrade. This should always be done before each installation. The -y option ensures that all interactive questions are answered with yes during the installation.

After the installation issue the following commands to check the status, start, stop and restart the mongod.

:# sudo service mongod status

:# sudo service mongod start

:# sudo service mongod stop

:# sudo service mongod restart

Mongodb comes with 3 standard dbs pre installed:

• admin
• config
• local
  

If you want to use mondodb for a project you setup your own database. databases in mongodb contain collections and collections contain the data. So for example you could have the following structure for your project:

your-db -> your-db-users-collection -> your-db-users-collection-user-data

MongoDB by default does not enable client authentication. So you could now setup your new database like your-db and connect to it without authentication. This would mean that everyone in the world is able to access your data.

Thefore you should enable client authentication and follow the given steps. Here we will implement a very simple security concept.

The following steps include the setup of an admin user in standard admin db and the creation of a project database with a seperate user. The admin user will be able to create databases and manage users for all databases in the mondodb instance. Each seperate project database become a seperate user and this user will be the owner and can do everything.

First we create an admin user in mongo shell. After we create that admin user we test if authentication works with db.auth and exit mongo shell.

:# mongo

> use admin
switched to db admin

> db
admin

> db.createUser({ user: "myUserAdmin", pwd: "adminpassword", roles: [{ role: "userAdminAnyDatabase", db: "admin" }, {"role" : "readWriteAnyDatabase", "db" : "admin"}] })

> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "adminpassword")
1

> show users
{
	"_id" : "admin.myUserAdmin",
	"userId" : UUID("5cbe2fc4-1e54-4c2d-89d1-317340429571"),
	"user" : "myUserAdmin",
	"db" : "admin",
	"roles" : [
		{
			"role" : "userAdminAnyDatabase",
			"db" : "admin"
		},
		{
			"role" : "readWriteAnyDatabase",
			"db" : "admin"
		}
	],
	"mechanisms" : [
		"SCRAM-SHA-1",
		"SCRAM-SHA-256"
	]
}

> exit

In this case the admin user got the role userAdminAnyDatabase and the role readWriteAnyDatabase. With userAdminAnyDatabase the admin user will be able to create, update, delete users on all databases except local and config.

readWriteAnyDatabase provides all the privileges to read plus the ability to modify data on all non-system collections.

Then open /etc/mongod.conf file in your editor an add the following lines to the file if they do not already exist. Therefore pls. note the security: option (security: authorization: enabled).

# mongod.conf

# for documentation of all options, see:
#   http://docs.mongodb.org/manual/reference/configuration-options/

# Where and how to store data.
storage:
  dbPath: /var/lib/mongodb
  journal:
    enabled: true
#  engine:
#  mmapv1:
#  wiredTiger:

# where to write logging data.
systemLog:
  destination: file
  logAppend: true
  path: /var/log/mongodb/mongod.log

# network interfaces
net:
  port: 27017
  bindIp: 127.0.0.1


#processManagement:

#security:
security:
  authorization: enabled

#operationProfiling:

#replication:

#sharding:

## Enterprise-Only Options:

#auditLog:

#snmp:

Pls. note the net:option (net: port: 27017 bindIp: 127.0.0.1). For security reasons it is necessary that the mongodb instance only connects on the loopback interface (127.0.0.1). Mongodb may only accept connections from this interface and never from outside, such as from an interface that is connected to the internet. Therefore bindIp must be configured with 127.0.0.1 in mongod.conf as is the case in this configuration above.

Then you should stop and start or simply restart your mongod.

:# sudo service mongod restart

Authentication is now enabled and we can logon with the admin user to a create a new project database with a user that will be the owner.

:# mongo

> use admin
switched to db admin

> db.auth("myUserAdmin", "adminpassword")
1

> use yourdatabase
switched to db yourdatabase

> db.createUser({ user: "youruser", pwd: "yourpassword", roles: [{ role: "dbOwner", db: "yourdatabase" }] })

> db.auth("youruser", "yourpassword")
1

> exit

The database owner can perform any administrative action on yourdatabase (database that has just been created by the admin). The owner role is something like the master role and combines privileges granted by the readWrite, dbAdmin and userAdmin roles.

Now you can connect to yourdatabase using the following connection string.

mongodb://youruser:yourpassword@localhost/yourdatabase

Install Mongoose local package in a project directory

Mongoose offers a schema-based solution to apply modeling and structure to application data and then to save the data in a Mongodb. mongoose is an open source node.js package and is ideal for the development of database-based node js web applications such as node express.

note: This article focuses on the installation and commissioning of Mongodb. Mongoose is required for the development of node js applications and is only briefly described here. Scheme and data modeling as well as CRUD application examples are explained in one of the next articles in the context of an express application.

Suppose we have created a project directory called express on our computer. Then we will now change to this directory and list all currently installed npm packages with the command npm list --depth 0.

:# cd /software/dev/express

:# npm list --depth 0

In the project directory, the following command is executed in the terminal to install mongoose for your project.

:# npm install mongoose

server@1.0.0 /home/patrick/software/dev/express
`-- mongoose@5.8.9  extraneous

**note: ** If you have problems with installing packages pls. create the package.json file with all the dependencies and then run npm install.

:# cat package.json

{
  "name": "server",
  "version": "1.0.0",
  "private": true,
  "description": "this is test node application",
  "main": "index.js",
  "scripts": {
    "test": "echo \"Error: no test specified\" && exit 1",
    "start": "node server.js"
  },
  "author": "Patrick Rottländer",
  "license": "ISC",
  "dependencies": {
    "envy": "^2.0.0",
    "express": "^4.17.1",
    "mongoose": "^5.8.3"
  },
  "devDependencies": {}
}

:# npm install

I use adduser because with this perl script, in addition to creating the user in /etc/passwd and creating a dedicated user group in /etc/group, the home directory in /home is also created and default files are copied from /etc/skel if necessary.

As root run the command adduser mynewuser.

:# adduser mynewuser

Benutzer »mynewuser« wird hinzugefügt …
Neue Gruppe »mynewuser« (1001) wird hinzugefügt …
Neuer Benutzer »mynewuser« (1001) mit Gruppe »mynewuser« wird hinzugefügt …
Persönliche Ordner »/home/mynewuser« wird erstellt …
Dateien werden von »/etc/skel« kopiert …
Geben Sie ein neues UNIX-Passwort ein:
Geben Sie das neue UNIX-Passwort erneut ein:
passwd: password updated successfully
Changing the user information for mynewuser
Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default
	Full Name []: Tech User
	Room Number []:
	Work Phone []:
	Home Phone []:
	Other []: This user is only for tech
Ist diese Information richtig? [J/N] J

This create a user in /etc/passwd, create the user group in /etc/group and the home dirrectors in /home

:# grep mynewuser /etc/passwd

mynewuser:x:1001:1001:Tech User,,,,This user is only for tech:/home/mynewuser:/bin/bash


:# ls -l /home
drwxr-xr-x 2 mynewuser mynewuser 4096 Jan 23 05:31 mynewuser

:# cat /etc/group
....
....
mynewuser:x:1001:

The last entry in the /etc/passwd specifies the shell of the new user. With the newly created user, the bash shell is used, which is completely ok for me. However, if there is a need to change the user’s shell, this can be done with the command usermod --shell.

:# ls -l /etc/shells

# /etc/shells: valid login shells
/bin/sh
/bin/dash
/bin/bash
/bin/rbash
/usr/bin/screen
/bin/tcsh
/usr/bin/tcsh

:# usermod --shell /bin/sh mynewuser

:# grep mynewuser /etc/passwd

mynewuser:x:1001:1001:Tech User,,,,This user is only for tech:/home/mynewuser:/bin/sh

This newly created user can create files in his home directory and access files. However, it cannot copy files to directories owned by root.

:# nano testfile
:# ls -l
insgesamt 4
-rw-rw-r-- 1 mynewuser mynewuser 24 Jan 23 06:20 testfile

:# cp testfile /etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile
cp: reguläre Datei '/etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile' kann nicht angelegt werden: Keine Berechtigung

:# sudo cp testfile /etc/nginx/sites-available/testfile
[sudo] Passwort für mynewuser:
mynewuser ist nicht in der sudoers-Datei. Dieser Vorfall wird gemeldet.

Sudo allows the admin of the system to give certain other users on the system (or groups of users) the ability to run some (or all) commands as root.

In my sudo configuration it is already preconfigured that all users in the sudo group can execute all commands. please note the corresponding entry in the sudo file %sudo ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL.

:# cat /etc/sudoers

#
# This file MUST be edited with the 'visudo' command as root.
#
# Please consider adding local content in /etc/sudoers.d/ instead of
# directly modifying this file.
#
# See the man page for details on how to write a sudoers file.
#
Defaults	env_reset
Defaults	mail_badpass
Defaults	secure_path="/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/snap/bin"

# Host alias specification

# User alias specification

# Cmnd alias specification

# User privilege specification
root	ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

# Members of the admin group may gain root privileges
%admin ALL=(ALL) ALL

# Allow members of group sudo to execute any command
%sudo	ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL

# See sudoers(5) for more information on "#include" directives:

#includedir /etc/sudoers.d

To make the new user a member of the sudo group, the following command must be executed.

:# sudo usermod -a -G sudo mynewuser